CHAPTER 15

Ventilation
(Fire Fighter I)
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe the two components of ventilation

operations.
• Explain the conditions that lead to an
underventilated fire.
• Describe the potential hazards posed by an
underventilated fire and products of
combustion.
• Describe how ventilation operations affect the
behavior of the products of combustion.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe how convection aids in fire spread.

• List the benefits of ventilation.
• Explain how proper ventilation operations can
aid in preventing backdraft and flashover.
• Explain how the principles of heat transfer
affect ventilation operations.
• Explain how wind and atmospheric forces
affect ventilation operations.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Explain how fire-resistive construction affects

ventilation operations.
• Describe how the characteristics of ordinary
and wood-frame construction affect ventilation
operations.
• List the two basic types of ventilation.
• Explain how horizontal ventilation removes
contaminated atmosphere from a structure.
• List the two methods of horizontal ventilation.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Explain how natural ventilation removes

contaminated atmosphere from a structure.
• Describe the techniques used to provide
natural ventilation to a structure.
• Explain how mechanical ventilation removes
contaminated atmosphere from a structure.
• Describe the techniques used to provide
mechanical ventilation to a structure.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe how negative-pressure ventilation

removes contaminated atmosphere from a
structure.
• Describe the techniques used to provide
negative-pressure ventilation to a structure.
• Describe how positive-pressure ventilation
removes contaminated atmosphere from a
structure.
• Describe the advantages of positive-pressure
ventilation.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe the disadvantages of positive-

pressure ventilation.
• Describe the techniques used to provide
positive-pressure ventilation to a structure.
• Describe how hydraulic ventilation removes
contaminated atmosphere from a structure.
• Describe how vertical ventilation removes
contaminated atmosphere from a structure.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe the how to ensure fire fighter safety

during vertical ventilation operations.
• Identify the warning signs of roof collapse.
• Describe the components and characteristics of
roof support structures.
• Explain how roof construction affects fire
resistance.
• List the differences in solid-beam construction
and truss construction in roofs.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• List the basic types of roof design.

• Describe the characteristics of flat roofs.
• Describe the characteristics of pitched roofs.
• Describe the characteristics of arched roofs.
• Describe the techniques of vertical ventilation.
• List the tools used in vertical ventilation.
• List the types of roof cuts used in vertical
ventilation operations.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe the characteristics of a rectangular or

square cut.
• Describe the characteristics of a triangular cut.
• Describe the characteristics of a peak cut.
• Describe the characteristics of a trench cut.
• Describe the special considerations in
ventilating concrete roofs.
• Describe the special considerations in
ventilating metal roofs.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe the special considerations in

ventilating basements.
• Describe the special considerations in
ventilating high-rise buildings.
• Describe the special considerations in
ventilating windowless buildings.
 Fire Fighter I Objectives

• Describe the special considerations in

ventilating large buildings
• Explain how to ensure that ventilation
equipment is in a state of readiness.
 Introduction

• Ventilation
– The process of removing smoke, heat, and toxic
gases from a burning building and replacing them
with cooler, cleaner, more oxygen-rich air
 Introduction

• Two components:
– Removal of smoke, toxic gases, hot air
– Addition of cooler, cleaner, oxygen-rich air
• Modern construction uses lightweight and
manufactured building components
• Firefighters may assume the fire is small, fuel is
gone, or fire is in decay
 Fire Behavior and Ventilation

• Proper ventilation:
– Locates and rescues
victims
– Enables hose teams
to advance and
locate source of fire
– Prevents fire spread
 Fire Behavior and Ventilation

• Primary method of
fire spread is
convection.
• Mushrooming occurs
when the products of
combustion reach
the highest point.
 Benefits of Proper Ventilation

• Locate trapped occupants faster

• Fresh air to occupants
• Advance hose lines rapidly and safely
• Reduce backdraft and flashover
• Limit fire spread
• Reduce property loss
 Benefits of Proper Ventilation

A. Vented structure. B. Unvented structure.

 Backdraft

• Occurs when
building is charged
with hot gases and
oxygen has been
consumed
• When air is
introduced, fuel can
ignite and explode.
 Backdraft

• Release heat and

unburned particles
without allowing
entry of clean air.
• Ventilate as high as
possible.
 Flashover

• Needs both ventilation and cooling

• Occurs when:
– Air in room is very hot
– All combustibles are near their ignition point
• Applying water cools the atmosphere.
• Ventilation draws heat and flames away
 Factors Affecting Ventilation

• Convection
– Heated gases will always follow the path of least
resistance.
– Ill-fitting and tight-fitting windows can cause
dangerous fire conditions.
 Factors Affecting Ventilation

• Mechanical ventilation activities

– Negative-pressure
– Positive-pressure
– Hose streams
• Fire fighters should evaluate for signs of
backdraft before creating ventilation.
 Factors Affecting Ventilation

• Wind and
atmospheric forces
– Wind speed and
direction
– Temperature and
humidity
 Building Construction
Considerations

• The way a building is

constructed will affect
ventilation
operations.
 Fire-Resistive Construction

• Noncombustible structural components

• Paths of fire spread
– Heating, cooling, plumbing, electrical
– Elevator shafts
– Stairwells
• Roofs generally steel or concrete
 Ordinary Construction

• Construction design
– Exterior walls noncombustible
– Interior walls/floors of wood
– Roof is wood decking and structural support.
 Ordinary Construction

• Paths of fire spread

– Plumbing and
electrical chases
– Void spaces in walls
– Cockloft

© Steven Townsend/Code 3 Images

 Wood-Frame Construction

• Combustible exterior walls

• Paths of fire spread
– Attics and cocklofts
– Wood truss roofs and floors
• Construction types
– Balloon-frame
– Platform
 Location and Extent of Smoke and
Fire Conditions

• Factors to consider
– Size of the fire
– Stage of combustion
– Location within the building
– Available ventilation options
 Location and Extent of Smoke and
Fire Conditions

• Where to ventilate
– As close to the fire as

Courtesy of District Chief Chris E. Mickal/New Orleans Fire Department, Photo Unit
possible
– If unable to vent close
to the fire:
• Predict how location
will affect the fire.
• Anticipate fire spread.
 Location and Extent of Smoke and
Fire Conditions

• Determine fire size, intensity, and fuel

– Light smoke, moving lazily—small fire of ordinary
combustibles
– Large amount of black rolling smoke—petroleum-
based fire
– Cool days may cause smoke inversion.
– Sprinkler activation may cause fog.
 Types of Ventilation

• Two basic types of ventilation

– Horizontal
• Uses horizontal openings in a structure such as doors
and windows
– Vertical
• Involves openings in the roofs or floors
 Horizontal Ventilation

Courtesy of District Chief Chris E. Mickal/New Orleans Fire Department, Photo Unit
• Commonly used in
residential fires and
room-and-contents
fires
• Generally fast and
easy to use
• Can be used from
inside or outside the
building
 Horizontal Ventilation

• Most effective when opening is directly to

outside
• More difficult when there are no openings
• Limits structural damage
• Only open doors when the host line is charged
and the attack team is ready to advance.
 Natural Ventilation

• Depends on convection currents, wind, and

other natural air movements
• Used when air currents are adequate
• Used when ventilation is needed quickly
• Open leeward side of building first, then
windward.
 Natural Ventilation

• Breaking glass
– Try to open first.
– Wear full PPE.
– Ensure no one will be
struck by the glass.
– Always use a tool.
– Keep hands above or
to the side of glass.
– Use a tool to clear
remaining glass.
 Natural Ventilation

• Opening doors
– Provide large openings.
– May compromise entry/exit points
– May be best for clean air points
– Good location for mechanical ventilation devices
 Mechanical Ventilation

• Negative-pressure
ventilation
– Limitations:
• Positioning
• Power source
• Maintenance
• Air flow control
– Advantages
• Explosion-proof
motors
Courtesy of Super Vacuum Mfg. Co., Inc.
 Mechanical Ventilation

• Positive-pressure
ventilation
– Large, powerful fans
– Advantages:
• Quick and efficient
• Increased safety
– Disadvantages
• May spread the fire
• May increase carbon
monoxide levels
 Mechanical Ventilation

• Hydraulic ventilation
– Fog or broken pattern
– Advantages
• Move several thousand cubic feet of air per minute
– Disadvantages
• Water damage
• Safety hazards
 Vertical Ventilation

• Releases
combustion products
vertically
• Occurs naturally if
there is an opening
• May be assisted by
mechanical means
 Vertical Ventilation

• Safety considerations
– Determine roof construction first
– Opening should not be between fire fighters and
exit.
– Have a charged hose line ready.
– Leave the area once done.
 Vertical Ventilation

• Safety
considerations
– “Sound” the roof
– Walk on areas of
greatest support
– Make cuts from: © craig robinson/iStockphoto.com

• Upwind
• With clear exit path
• While standing on
firm section
 Roof Construction

• Two components
– Support structure
• Solid beams of wood, steel, or concrete
• System of trusses of wood, steel, or wood and steel
– Roof covering
• Made of various weather-resistant materials
• Supported by the roof decking
Effects of Roof Construction on Fire
Resistance

• Support system failure

– Supporting structure fails
– Often a sudden and total collapse
• Roof covering failure
– Burns through roof covering
– Spreads out, causing roof failure
– In warmer climates burn through quickly; in colder
climates burn with little evidence
 Solid Beam vs Truss

• Solid beam
– Girders, beams, and
rafters
• Truss
– Lightweight
components
– Wood or steel bars
– Triangular
configuration
 Roof Designs

• Flat roofs
– Can be constructed with many types of supports,
decking, and materials
• Pitched roofs
– Have a visible slope for rain, ice, and snow runoff
 Roof Designs

• Arched roofs
– Generally found in commercial structures
– Use bowstring trusses in which fire can severely and
quickly weaken structure

© NicVW/Alamy Images
 Roof Ventilation

• Objectives:
– Provide largest opening
– Put in appropriate location
– Use least amount of time
– Use safest technique
 Roof Ventilation

• Before starting vertical ventilation, assess the

following:
– Construction features
– Indications of fire damage
– Safety zones and exit paths
– Built-in roof openings
 Roof Ventilation

• Most effective at
highest point and
over seat of fire
• May need to cut an
examination hole
• One hole is better
than several small
ones
• Minimum size 4'×4'
 Tools Used in Vertical Ventilation

• Power saws
• Axes
• Halligan tools
• Pry bars
• Tin cutters
• Pike poles, other types of hooks
• Utility rope
 Types of Roof Cuts

• Rectangular cut
– Requires four cuts completely through the decking
– Use care to not cut structural supports.
– Stand upwind and have a safe exit.
– If several layers exist, may have to peel a layer at a
time
 Types of Roof Cuts

• Louver cut
– Used for flat or sloping roofs with plywood decking
– Power saw or axe used to make the cuts
– Can quickly create a large opening
 Types of Roof Cuts

• Triangular cut
– Used to prevent metal decking from rolling away as
it is cut
– A saw or axe is used.
– Several may be needed because of their small size.
 Types of Roof Cuts

• Peak cut
– Used for peaked roofs with plywood sheeting
– A tool is used to reveal the roof covering along the
peak.
– A power saw or axe is used to make a series of
vertical cuts.
 Types of Roof Cuts

• Trench cut
– Used to stop the
progress of a large
fire in a narrow
building
– Creates large opening
ahead of the fire
– “Writes off” part of the
building
 Special Considerations

• Poor access or obstructions

• Multiple roofs and roof layers
• Boarded or sealed window openings
• Security measures such as steel bars and
shutters
 Ventilating Concrete Roofs

• Generally flat and hard to breach

• May collapse from weakened support systems
when exposed to fire
• Search for alternative openings
 Ventilating Metal Roofs

• Discoloration and warping may indicate seat of

fire.
• Tar roof covering can melt and leak into the
building.
• Metal can roll down and create a dangerous
slide directly into the opening.
 Ventilating Basements

• Usually requires both horizontal and vertical

ventilation
• Make as many openings on one side as
possible and allow fire fighters to enter from the
other.
• A cellar nozzle or hose line may be needed.
 Ventilating High-Rise Buildings

• Many have hard to break sealed windows.

• Newer buildings have smoke management in
the HVAC.
• Designate one stairwell as a rescue route.
• Positive-pressure fans can keep smoke out of
the stairs.
 Ventilating High-Rise Buildings

• A cold outer
atmosphere and a
heated interior will
cause smoke to rise
quickly through
vertical openings.
 Ventilating High-Rise Buildings

• A hot outer
atmosphere and a
cooled interior will
cause smoke to push
down the vertical
openings.
 Ventilating Windowless Buildings

• Traps heat and

smoke
• Treat similar to a
basement fire.
• Ventilate high. © olaf schlueter/ShutterStock, Inc.
 Ventilating Large Buildings

• More difficult than small ones

• Smoke cools as it travels, causing stratification.
• When possible, use interior walls and doors to
create smaller areas.
 Equipment Maintenance

• Must be kept in good repair and operate at

peak efficiency
• Read and follow manufacturer’s instructions.
• Filled with fuel
• Practice using ventilation tools.
 Summary

• Ventilation removes smoke, heat, and toxic

gases from a burning building.
• Flashback or backdraft is caused by the
addition of oxygen-rich air to a smoke-filled and
fuel-rich atmosphere.
• New construction leads to a large fuel supply.
• Ventilation can save lives and reduce property
damage.
 Summary

• An increase in fire produces more smoke, heat,

and toxic gases.
• Convection controls the spread of the products
of combustion.
• In convection, heated gases expand and
become less dense than cooler gases.
• Proper ventilation includes improved visibility,
removal of heat and steam, reduction of
backdraft, and limited fire spread.
 Summary

• Backdraft can be reduced by ventilation.

• Ventilation and cooling are needed to relieve
potential flashover conditions.
• Convection currents carry smoke and
superheated gases to uninvolved areas.
• The direction and force of the wind should be
considered.
 Summary

• Structural components in fire-resistive

construction are made of noncombustible or
limited-combustible materials.
• Ordinary construction buildings have exterior
walls composed of noncombustible or limited-
combustible materials.
• Wood-frame buildings contain void spaces.
• Fire fighters must be able to recognize when
ventilation is needed.
 Summary

• Vertical ventilation makes structural holes.

• Horizontal ventilation include natural and
mechanical methods.
• Vertical ventilation allows the products of
combustion to travel up and out.
• Fire fighters must evaluate all pertinent safety
issues and avoid unnecessary risks.
• When working on a roof, fire fighters should
have two safe exit routes.
 Summary

• Roofs are composed of support structures and

roof coverings.
• Roof designs can be flat, pitched, or arched.
• Vertical ventilation openings include built-in,
inspection, primary, and secondary.
• Commercial or industrial structures have
concrete roofs.
 Summary

• Metal roofs conduct heat and are supported by

lightweight steel metal joists.
• Venting a basement may include both
horizontal and vertical.
• HVAC systems may be used to ventilate high-
rise buildings.
• All equipment and tools must be in a ready
state and be properly maintained.