As early as the 17th century, knowledge

about the structure of the atom grew when

scientists began to study the emission and
absorption of light from different elements.
Activity 1, you will find out what happens when
metal salts are subjected to heat. `The colors you
observe could be related to the structure of the
atom
Activity 1: The Flame Test

Objectives:
determine the characteristic colors that metal salts
emit; and
relate the colors emitted by metal salts to the structure
of the atom.
Table 1. Color of flame of metal salts
Metal salt tested Element producing color Color of the flame
Boric acid boron
Calcium chloride calcium
Sodium chloride sodium
Potassium chloride potassium
Copper(II) sulfate copper
Metal salt tested Element producing color Color of the flame
Boric acid boron green
Calcium chloride calcium orange
Sodium chloride sodium Yellow orange
Potassium chloride potassium Light violet
Copper(II) sulfate copper Blue-green

Flame test is a form of qualitative analysis that is

used to visually determine the identity of an unknown
metal or metalloid ion based on the color emission. A
distinctive color is emitted because the heat of the flame
excites the electrons of the metal ions, causing them to
emit visible light.
The limitations of flame test which are as follows:
It cannot detect low concentrations of almost all ions.
The intensity of the visible light differs from one sample
to another. For example, the yellow emission from
sodium is much brighter than the red emission from the
same amount of lithium.
Contaminants affect the test results. Sodium, in
particular, is present in most compounds and will color
the flame. Sometimes a blue glass is used to filter out
the yellow of sodium.
The test cannot differentiate between all elements.
Several metals produce the same flame color. Some
compounds do not change the color of the flame at all.
Bohr considered the electrons as particles moving around
the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. These orbits are found
at definite distances from the nucleus. The orbits are
known as the energy levels, n where n is a whole number
1, 2, 3…and so forth

Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy, which

increases as the distance of the orbit from the nucleus
increases. As long as the electron stays in its orbit,
there is no absorption or emission of energy. As shown
in Figure 3, when an electron of an element absorbed
extra energy (from a flame or electric arc), this
electron moves to a higher energy level. At this point
the electron is at its excited state. Once excited, the
atom is unstable.
 The same electron can return to any of the lower
energy levels releasing energy in the form of light with a
particular color and a definite energy or wavelength.
Bohr’s model explained the appearance of the bright line
spectrum of the hydrogen atom but could not explain for
atoms that has more than one electron.

Figure 3. Excited state of an electron

 The energy levels of electrons are like the steps of a
ladder. The lowest step of the ladder corresponds to the
lowest energy level. A person can climb up and down by
going from step to step. Similarly, the electrons can move
from one energy level to another by absorbing or
releasing energy. Energy levels in an atom are not equally
spaced which means that the amount of energy are not
the same. The higher energy levels are closer together. If
an electron occupies a higher energy level, it will take less
energy for it to move to the next higher energy level. As a
result of the Bohr model, electrons are described as
occupying fixed energy levels at a certain distance from
the nucleus of an atom.
However, Bohr’s model of the atom was not
sufficient to describe atoms with more than one
electron. The way around the problem with the
Bohr’s model is to know the arrangement of
electrons in atoms in terms of the probability of
finding an electron in certain locations within the
atom. In the next activity, you will use an analogy
to understand the probability of finding an
electron in an atom.
 Scientists found out that it is not possible to know the exact
position of the electron. So, Bohr’s idea that electrons are found in
definite orbits around the nucleus was rejected. Three physicists led
the development of a better model of the atom. These were Louie
de Broglie, Erwin Schrodinger, and Werner Karl Heisenberg. De
Broglie proposed that the electron (which is thought of as a
particle) could also be thought of as a wave. Schrodinger used this
idea to develop a mathematical equation to describe the hydrogen
atom. Heisenberg discovered that for a very small particle like the
electron, its location cannot be exactly known and how it is moving.
This is called the uncertainty principle.
 The volume or region of space around the nucleus
where the electron is most likely to be found is called an
atomic orbital. Thus, we could only guess the most
probable location of the electron at a certain time to be
within a certain volume of space surrounding the nucleus.
In an atom, electrons and the nucleus interact to
make the most stable arrangement possible. The way in
which electrons are distributed in the different orbitals
around the nucleus of an atom is called the electron
configuration.
 ORBITAL
Chemical Symbol 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz Electron Configuration
1H ↑ 1s1
2He ↑↓ 1s2
3Li ↑↓ ↑ 1s22s1
4Be ↑↓ ↑↓ 1s22s2
5B ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ 1s22s22px1
6C ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s22s22px12py1
7N ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ 1s22s22px12py12pz1
8O ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s22s22px22py12pz1
9F ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ 1s22s22px22py22pz1
10Ne ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 1s22s22px22py22pz