Developmental Psychology

Heredity and Environment, Prenatal

Development Week 3
The Beginnings of Human Life
• Gamete—reproductive cell that
directs process by which genetic
information combined and
transmitted
• Father gametes—sperm
• Mother gametes—ovum
 Zygote and Genotype
• Male and female gametes fuse and
become a zygote
• Zygote begins process of duplication and
division
– two reproductive cells
• Genotype—the genetic information from
the 46 chromosomes
– set at human conception and endures
through life
Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.

• Females always contribute one X

• Males will have 1/2 of the sperm
contributing an X and the other half
contributing a Y
• Critical factor in determining the sex
of a zygote is which sperm reaches
the ovum first
Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.
• Other factors include
– rarely, male sperm may only carry either X or Y
– sometimes a woman’s uterus either unusually
alkaline or acid, giving either an X or Y sperm
an advantage
– in a stressful pregnancy XY embryos are more
likely to be expelled than are XX embryos in a
spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage
– current sex ratio in United States is 52 males
to 48 females
 Multiple Zygotes
• Monozygotic twins—identical twins
(or quadruplets) originate from one
zygote
– share identical instructions
– possibility of cloning
– 1/3 of twins monozygotic
 Multiple Zygotes, cont.

• Dizygotic twins—from two separate

zygotes
– Dizygotic births occur once in every 60
births, and occur as frequently as 1 in
6 pregnancies, but usually only 1 twin
develops past embryo stage
 Multiple Zygotes, cont.

• Dizygotic twins
– women in late 30’s are three times more
likely to have dizygotic twins
• as menopause approaches, ovulation becomes
irregular with some cycles producing no ovas
and others producing multiple ovas
– share no more genes than other
offspring (about 50 percent)
• 50 percent of the time one twin is male
 Duplication, Division, and
Differentiation
• The zygote contains a complete set
of instructions to create a person
• Complex instructions on duplication,
cell division, and differentiation
 Differentiation, cont.

• Certain genes affect differentiation

by switching other genes on and
others off so that the other genes
produce the right proteins at the
right times—on-off switching
mechanisms
• Genotype—the genetic potential
 Gene - Gene Interactions
• Multifactoral traits—inherited
traits produced by interaction of
genes and environment
• Polygenetic traits—inherited traits
produced by gene interaction
• These are affected by on-off
switching mechanisms, additive
genes, and dominant-recessive genes
 Dominant and Recessive
Genes
• Nonadditive genes—phenotype
shows one gene more influential than
other genes
• This is also referred to as the
dominant-recessive pattern
– gene showing the most influence is
referred to as dominant
– gene showing the least influence is
referred to as recessive
 Complications

• genetic imprinting—tendency of
certain genes to be expressed
differently when inherited from
mother than from father (tagging)
– some of the genes which influence
height, insulin production, and several
forms of mental retardation affect a
child differently depending on which
parent they came from
 Mechanisms of Genetic
Diversity
• Since each gamete contains only 23
chromosomes, why is every conception
genetically unique?
– 8 million chromosomally different ova x
8 million of the same = 64 trillion
different possibilities of children from
each couple
 Health Benefits of Genetic
Diversity
• Genetic diversity safeguards human
health
• Minute differences can affect the
ability to stave off certain diseases
• Genetic diversity maintains the
species
From Genotype to Phenotype

• Every psychological characteristic

is genetically influenced
• Every psychological characteristic
and personal trait is affected by
the environment
 Behavior Genetics

• Behavior genetics—study of effects

of genes on behavior
– personality patterns, psychological
disorders, and intellectual abilities
 Senility Caused by
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Most common and feared type of
senility is Alzheimer’s disease
– amyloid B protein accumulates in the
brain, leading to dysfunction and
destruction of brain cells and
disruption of the mind
• Can be genetic—but only when
“early-onset”
 Senility Caused by Alzheimer’s
Disease, cont.

• If “late-onset,” may be a combination

of genes and environment
– other predictors may include
hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol,
diet, exercise, not smoking, weight
control, mental alertness, and physical
health
 Alcoholism

• Inherited biochemistry makes some

people highly susceptible to alcohol
addiction
– addictive pull can be overpowering, or
weak, or something in the middle
– may explain ethnic variations
 Alcoholism, cont.

• Not simply a biochemical reaction—it

is psychological and physical, and
biological; thus alcoholism is
polygenetic, with alcoholics inheriting
a combination of biochemistry-
affecting and temperament-affecting
genes
• Culture counts too(whether alcohol is
present in environment)
 Down Syndrome
• Three chromosomes at gene #21
(trisomy-21)
• Syndrome—a cluster of distinct
characteristics that occur together
in a given disorder
 Abnormalities of the
23rd Pair
• Location of sex chromosome
• Kleinfelters syndrome—XXY
– seemingly normal child has delayed
puberty
• Fragile X syndrome
– hanging on by a thread (mutated gene)
– intensifies from generation to
generation
 Genetic Testing and Genetic
Counseling
• Individuals with a parent, sibling, or
child with a serious genetic condition
known to be dominant or recessive
• Couples with history of early
spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, or
infertility
• Women over 35 and men over 40
 Prenatal Development and
Birth
From Zygote to Newborn:
Germinal period—first 14 days
Embryonic period—3rd through
8th weeks
Fetal period—9th week through
birth
 Third Month
• Sex organs take shape (Y cell sends
signal to male sex organs; for females,
no signal occurs)
- genital organs fully shaped by 12th week
• All body parts present
• Fetus can move every part of body
 Middle Three Months:
Preparing to Survive
• Heartbeat stronger
• Digestive and excretory systems
develop more fully
• Impressive brain growth (6X in size
and responsive)
- new neurons develop (neurogenesis)
- synapses—connections between neurons
(synaptogenesis)
 Final Three Months—
Viability to Full Term
• Maturation of the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
- critical difference
• Gains weight—4.5 lbs. in last 10 weeks
 Risk Reduction
• Despite complexity, most babies are
born healthy
• Most hazards are avoidable
• Teratology—study of birth defects
– teratogens—broad range of substances
that can cause environmental insults that
may cause prenatal abnormalities or
later learning abilities
 Genetic Vulnerability
• Genetic susceptibilities: product of
genes combined with stress
• Folic-acid deficiency may cause
neural- tube defects
- occurs most commonly in certain ethnic
groups and less often in others
• Males are more genetically vulnerable
 Specific Teratogens
• No way to predict risk on an individual
basis
• Research has shown possible effects of
most common and damaging teratogens
• AIDS and alcohol extremely damaging
– pregnant women with AIDS transmit it
to their newborns; high doses of alcohol
cause FAS; alcohol + drug use increase
risk to developing organism
 Low Birthweight, cont.

• Small for Gestational Age (SGA)

– maternal illness
– maternal behavior
• cigarette smoking (25% of SGA births)
– maternal malnutrition
• poorly nourished before and during pregnancy
• underweight, undereating, and smoking tend to
occur together
 Low Birthweight, cont.

• Factors that affect normal prenatal

growth
– quality of medical care, education, social
support, and cultural practices
The Newborn’s First Minutes
• Assessment—Apgar scale
– five factors, 2 points each
• heart rate
• breathing
• color
• muscle tone
• reflexes
• score of 7 or better: normal
• score under 7: needs help breathing
• score under 4: needs urgent critical care
 Birth Complications
• Cerebral Palsy—brain damage causing
difficulties in muscle control, possibly
affecting speech or other body
movements
• Anoxia—lack of oxygen that, if
prolonged, can cause brain damage or
death
 Mothers and Fathers

• Strong family support (familia)

• Fathers play a crucial role
– may help wives abstain from drugs or
alcohol
– can reduce maternal stress
• Parental alliance—commitment by both
parents to cooperate in raising child
– helps alleviate postpartum depression
 Cognitive Development in the
Uterus
• A level of consciousness is present in the
womb
• Human awareness begins in the womb
• Playing music to the foetus or talking to the
unborn child is often recommended
• Brain growth occurs rapidly in first and third
trimesters
 Further Reading
• Chapters 3 & 4 Berger