RAD 100 - Introduction

to Clinical Radiography

Chapter 9: Basic Radiation

Protection
Basic Radiation Protection

 Ionizing Radiation is used to produce a

diagnostic image for the radiologist
 Benefits must outweigh the risk
 Sources of radiation include:
 Natural or background: energy from sun & other
planets and naturally occurring radioactive substances
present on the earth such as uranium and radon
 Man-made: nuclear energy, radionuclides, and medical
& dental x-rays
X-rays travel at speed of light

 3 things must be present for x-ray

production
 A source of electrons
 A force to rapidly move them
 Something to stop the movement rapidly!
These 3 items are met by the
x-ray tube & the electricity
supplied to the tube.
 The tube is composed of:

 Anode – positive terminal

 Cathode – negative terminal
 Filament – made of thoriated tungsten (This
provides the source of electrons)
X-ray production occurs when:

 Kilovoltage is applied to filament

 The stream of electrons is rapidly accelerated
to the anode
 Upon striking the anode, they undergo energy
conversion
 This produces both heat and energy

 The beam that results is heterogenous and

measure in kiloelectron volts (keV)
 X-rays are produced!
 These x-rays are known as the primary beam
and exit the tube through a glass window in the
tube.

 Once they strike the patient 3 possibilities

exist:
 They can be absorbed
 They can transfer some energy & then scatter
 They can pass through the patient unaffected
 X-rays interact with
matter in five ways:
 3 of these occur within the diagnostic
range of x-ray energies
 Classic coherent scattering
 Photoelectric interactions
 This type of interaction results in the greatest
hazard to patients
 Compton scattering
 This type of interaction results in the greatest
amount of exposure to us as radiographers!
 X-rays interact with
matter in five ways:
 2 more interactions occur in energies that
are higher than levels which occurr in
diagnostic x-ray

 Pair production

 Photodisintregation
Ionizing radiation can be quantified

 Units of measurement:
 Units most commonly used since 1920’s in Table 9-1
 SI (International System of Units) was adopted in 1985
 (Roentgen/R) or Coulomb/kilogram – measure of exposure
in air
 (Rad) or Gray/G –measures absorbed dose in any medium
 (Rem) or Sievert/Sv – radiation equivalent to man
(The unit of absorbed dose in man regardless of type of
radiation that is used.)
 (Curie) or Becquerel – measures activity (how fast a
radionuclide decays)
Standards for Regulation
of Exposure
 Limits must be set to ensure safety for
both patient and the radiation workers
 National Council on Radiation Protection
(NCRP)
 Advisory group that helps to establish radiation
protection standards
 Current practice is to apply ALARA concept:
 As Low As Reasonably Achievable
Effective dose limit recommendations:

 Annual whole body dose for the

occupational worker is:
 50 mSv (5 rem)

 Annual whole body dose for the general

population is 1/10 the exposure for
workers, or:
 5 mSv (.5 rem)
 Review of cellular structure and
how radiation interacts with cells:

 A cell is the simplest unit of protoplasm

that is capable of living independently.
 Cells are divided into:
 the nucleus which is made up of genes
 the cytoplasm which is primarily made of water
 There are 2 cell types.
 Somatic cells which perform the body’s
functions
 Germ cells which are reproductive cells
How do cells respond to radiation?

 The total body response: the radiation

effects to all systems of the body
 3 general stages:
 Prodomal stage: NVD stage
 Latent period: the patient feels well, but the body
is undergoing biologic changes that will lead to –
 Manifest stage: Leads to either recovery or death
As a result of overexposure, there are 3
radiation syndromes that occur

 Bone marrow syndrome

 Results in infection, hemorrhage and anemia
 Gastrointestinal syndrome
 Results in excessive diarrhea, nausea &
vomiting
 Central nervous system syndrome
 Results in convulsions, coma and eventually
death due to increased intracranial pressure
Other effects of radiation are
also important!
 Late effects can develop over a long
period after the exposure
 These late effects are divided into 2 groups
 Somatic effects: develops in those people
exposed
 2 most common somatic effects are cataracts and
cancer development
 Genetic effects: occur in future generations as a
result of damage to germ cells when mutated
cells are fertilized by another mutated cell
How do we protect the patient?

 Use the ALARA concept

 Use the 3 cardinal principles of protection
 Time
 Use proper techniques to reduce repeats
 Distance
 Not the most reasonable method for the patient, but works
well for you!
 Shielding
 When the primary beam is within 4-5 cm. of reproductive
organs (See Fig. 9-9, pg, 120)
 Other methods of patient
protection:

 Beam restriction
 Proper film/screen combinations
 Correct technical factor selection
 Using proper filtration exiting from x-ray
beam
 How do we protect ourselves?

 Time
 Limit your time in exposure, especially during fluoroscopy
 Distance – the best protection of all!
 Inverse square law: doubling your distance reduces your exposure to
¼ of original
 Use immobilization devices or restraints when possible to reduce your
exposure
 Shielding - use lead aprons & gloves
 These devices should contain between .25 & I.0 mm of lead

 Fixed barriers
 Primary barriers: those struck by primary beam
 Secondary barriers: those struck by scatter beam (lead or concrete)
Student pregnancy is covered by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commision (NRC)

 Once pregnancy is known, a limit of .05

rem (.5 mSv) per month should apply
 Though average exposure to the radiologic
technologist is unlikely to exceed these
limits, there is little reason not to declare a
pregnancy or alter a clinical assignment.
 Declaration is voluntary & must be made in
writing
 A second monitor is used at the level of the fetus
and must not exceed .005 rem (.05 mSv)/month
 Radiation monitoring
determines your exposure.
 Most 5 most common personnel devices are:
 OSL (optically stimulated luminescence)
dosimeter: most common method
 Worn between the collar & waist outside of a lead
apron
 Advantageous because it is unaffected by heat,
moisture and pressure
 Its disadvantage is that you cannot get an
immediate reading of exposure
 Radiation monitoring:

 Film Badges: these were the most

popular and least expensive ways to
monitor exposure
 Its main disadvantage is its inability to get an
immediate reading of exposure
 Thermoluminescent dosimeters: uses
lithium fluoride crystals
 Advantageous because they can be reused
 Radiation monitoring:

 Pocket dosimeters: used when an

immediate reading is desired

 Disadvantage: subject to false readings and

does not provide a permanent record
 Radiation monitoring:

 Field survey instruments can also detect

the presence of radiation in the air

 A common type is Geiger-Muller counter

 These units are used in nuclear medicine to

detect the possibility of spilled radionuclides