Medical Physics

2022-2023

X-rays
University of Zakho
College of Medicine

By
Dr. Dindar S. Bari

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What are X-rays ?

X-rays are Electromagnetic waves generated from

electron clouds of atoms.

• No charge
• No mass
• Travel at the speed of light

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Ionization

Ionization
Atom Ion

Electron

More Reactive !!
Ionizing Biological Effect
Radiation
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 Conception of Ideas
X-rays were
accidentally discovered
by Dr.Willem Roentgen
in late 1895, in
Wurtzburg, Germany.

Dr Williem Roentgen

Mrs. Roentgen’s hand- the first x-ray of 4

human
How are X-rays produced ??

X-ray

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Target Electrons

X-ray tube
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 How are X-rays produced ??

Most X-ray devices emit electrons from cathode,

accelerate them with a voltage (vacuum), and let them
bombard a target (anode). As a result of interactions
of atoms of target elements and electrons, x-ray is
produced.
The energy of the x-ray shows different distribution
depending on the target material.
During the process, the device emits two different
types of radiation.
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 Where do X-rays come from ?

Atom of the target element Characteristic X-ray

Nucleus
Bremsstrahlung

Electrons
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Where do X-rays come from ?

•Characteristic X-ray
When the shell of the target atom has vacant,
electrons in outer orbit will replace the spot. The
energy difference is released as a form of X-ray. The
energy shows the peak as energy differences between
shells are characteristic of each atom.

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Where do X-rays come from ?

•Bremsstrahlung
Bremsstrahlung occurs when high energy electrons
slowed down near the nucleus. Excess energy (by
the deceleration) is released in the form of x-
ray(photon).
Bremsstrahlung means “ breaking radiation” in
German.
This shows continuous spectrum as each electron
emits different fraction of its energy.
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 Main properties of X-rays
1. invisibility; they cannot be perceived by the
senses
2. they travel in straight lines and at the speed of
light
3. they cannot be deflected by means of a lens or
prism,
4. they can pass through matter and are partly
absorbed.
5. they are ionising, that is, they liberate electrons
in matter
6. they can impair or destroy living cells
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 X-rays Absorption
• When x-rays penetrate through matter part
of the x-rays beam will be absorbed and scattered.
• Such as calcium are much better absorbents of
the x-rays than light elements such as carbon ,
oxygen and hydrogen .
• The mode of absorption is given by the following
equation I = I° e-μx
Where:
(I° ) is the original beam intensity ,
(I ) is the emerging beam intensity ,
(μ ) is the attenuation coefficient ,
(X) is the thickness of the absorber. 11
Units
R (Roentgen)
- The unit of radiation exposure in air.

•R (Roentgen)
Defined as the amount of X-ray or
gamma-ray that will generate 2.58E-4
coulombs/kg-air. This unit is only
applicable to X-ray/gamma-ray field.

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 Biological Effects

1- X-ray has a capability to go through skin layers and

deposit its energy to the cells deep inside the body.
2- X-ray has enough energy to ionize atoms, which
constructing molecules.
3- It can break chemical bonds within some critical
biological molecules.

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 Biological Effects

In some cases, those damaged cells are able to repair

themselves. However, when high dose or high dose rate
exposure may create non curable damage.
When cells are not recovered, this damage can cause cell
injury or even cell death. The effects may pass to
daughter cells (with damaged characteristics). The
division of this damaged cell may be the first step in
tumor/cancer development.
If enough cells in a particular body organ are damaged,
the function of the organ may be impaired.
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Biological Effects

Radiation

chromosome

Cell

Chemical bond break

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 Biological Effects

Typically young and rapid growing cells are

more sensitive to the radiation than grownup
Sensitivity cells.

Low Muscle, Joints, Central nerves, Fat

Skin, Inner-layer of intestines, Eyes

Bone marrow, Lymph system, Reproductive organs

High 16
Possible exposure rate
( X-ray machines)

Primary beam
50,000-500,000 R/min

X-ray Sample
Producing
Unit
Primary beam
Collimator/slit 5,000 – 50,000 R/min

Secondary beam
Leakage 0.5 - 5 R/hr
Scatter < 10 – 300 mR/hr 17
 Xray Projection Imaging:

Projection Xray
System
– Point source
– Patient
– Detector

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Personal protection

Time : Shorter usage → Less exposure

Distance : Keep your distance (Inverse square law)

Shielding : Shielding material selection

- Bremsstrahlung

Monitoring : Survey meter selection

PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)

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Time

- Planning of experiment
- Cold run
- Written procedure

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Distance

Distance is large factor for reducing exposure

Inverse Square law

“ When you double the distance the exposure
rate is decreased by 4 times ”

Proper equipment (e.g., tongs)

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Shielding

Increasing the amount of shielding

around a source of radiation will decrease
the amount of radiation exposure.

Be sure to shield all directions.

X-rays are easily scattered.

X-ray
Shielding machine
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 Rooms

Security
Limit access to authorized personnel only

Notification of hazard presence

Signs, Posting, Warning signs

Protection
Shielding, Warning signs
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Posting, Warning sign

Door sign
Warning sign

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Survey
Area
Thin-window GM (Geiger-Mueller) survey meter
may be used to
- Check leaking radiation
- Indicate x-ray production
- Monitor routine operation

Ion chamber is used to determine dose rate at the x-

ray field.

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Survey

The GM-counters count individual photons(x-ray,

gamma-ray) in counts per minute. It can be used to
check if the beam is off, when entering the area, if
there are any leaking, and other qualitative survey.

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Monitoring
Operator

Body badge type TLD (Thermo Luminescence

Dosimeter) is provided for the main users of the
X-ray machines. TLDs are personal dose
monitoring device and do “not” provide any
protection.

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 X-ray Risks
The risks of medical X-rays include
• a small increase in the chance of developing cancer later in life
• developing cataracts and skin burns following exposure to very
high levels of radiation
• The small risk of cancer depends on several factors:
• The lifetime risk of cancer increases as a person undergoes
more X-ray exams and the accumulated radiation dose gets
higher.
• The lifetime risk is higher for a person who received X-rays at a
younger age than for someone who receives them at an older
age.
• Women are at a somewhat higher lifetime risk than men for
developing cancer from radiation after receiving the same
exposures at the same ages.
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 Steps for patients
• Don't refuse an X-ray. If your health care professional explains why
it is medically needed, then don't refuse an X-ray. The risk of not
having a needed X-ray is greater than the small risk from radiation.

• Don't insist on an X-ray. If your health care professional explains

there is no need for an X-ray, then don't demand one.

• Tell the X-ray technologist in advance if you are, or might be,

pregnant.

• Ask if a protective shield can be used. If you or your children are

getting an X-ray, ask whether a lead apron or other shield should
be used.

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Steps for Patients
• Know your X-ray history. "Just as you may keep a list of your medications
with you when visiting the doctor, keep a list of your imaging records,
including dental X-rays,“
• When an X-ray is taken, fill out the card with the date and type of exam,
referring physician, and facility and address where the images are kept.
Show the card to your health care professionals to avoid unnecessary
duplication of X-rays of the same body part. Keep a record card for
everyone in your family.

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 Cancer risk

• The risk of getting cancer from x-rays is very small.

Government studies state that if you got 300 medical x-
rays in a year, it would increase your chances of getting
cancer by only 1%.

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The End !!!

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