Nuclear Chemistry

Chapter 16 (Pearson)
What’s the difference between a CHEMICAL reaction and a
NUCLEAR reaction?

 chemical reaction = nuclear reaction =

transfer or sharing of involves changes in
electrons; nuclei the nuclei of an atom
remains unchanged (protons)
Natural Radioactivity

• Most naturally occurring isotopes of elements up to atomic number 19

have stable nuclei.

• In these elements the nuclear forces offset the repulsions between the
protons.
Natural Radioactivity

Radioactivity comes from unstable

nuclei
• found in elements with atomic
numbers
20 and higher.
• defined as nuclei in which the
nuclear forces cannot offset the
repulsions between the protons.
• that are radioactive, emitting small
particles of energy called radiation
to become more stable.
Radioisotope

A radioisotope
• has an unstable nucleus and emits radiation.
• can be one or more isotopes of an element.
• includes the mass number in its name.
Iodine-131 is a radioisotope that is used in the
diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders.
Stable and Radioactive Isotopes
Types of Radiation Emitted

Radioisotopes emit radiation such as

• alpha a particles, identical to a helium
nucleus,
• beta b particles, high-energy
electrons,
• positrons b+, and
• pure energy called gamma (g) rays .
Alpha Particles

An alpha a particle has

• a helium nucleus.
• 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
• a mass number of 4.
• a charge of 2+.
• low energy compared to other radiation particles.
 Beta Particles

A beta b particle
• is a high-energy electron.
• has a mass number of 0
and a charge of 1−.
• forms in an unstable nucleus when a
neutron changes into a proton and an electron.
 Positrons

A positron b+
• has a mass number of 0 and a charge of 1+.
• forms in an unstable nucleus when a proton changes
into a neutron and a positron.
 Gamma Ray

A gamma g ray
• is high-energy radiation.
• has a mass number of 0
and a charge of 0.
• is a form of energy emitted from an unstable
nucleus to give a more stable, lower-energy
nucleus.
Forms of Radiation
 Types of Radiation Particles

Give the mass number and charge of each type of

radiation.

A. alpha particle
B. positron
C. beta particle
D. neutron
E. gamma ray
Types of Radiation Particles

Give the mass number and charge of each type of

radiation.
Mass Number Charge
A. alpha particle 4 2+
B. positron 0 1+
C. beta particle 0 1−
D. neutron 1 0
E. gamma ray 0 0
What determines the stability of a nucleus?

Proton to neutron  When a nucleus has a proton to

neutron ratio of 1:1, it is stable
ratio  Too many neutrons or protons
upset this balance disrupting the
binding energy from the strong
nuclear forces making the nucleus
unstable.
 An unstable nucleus tries to achieve
a balanced state by giving off a
neutron or proton and this is done
via radioactive decay
 Biological Effects

Ionizing radiation strikes molecules in its path.

• It damages the cells most sensitive to radiation:
rapidly dividing cells in bone marrow, skin, and
reproductive organs, and cancer cells.
• Cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation; large
doses of radiation are used to destroy them.
• The normal tissue around cancer cells divides at a
slower rate and suffers less damage from radiation.
• Radiation may cause malignant tumors, leukemia,
anemia, and genetic mutations.
Radiation Protection

Radiation protection requires

• paper and clothing for alpha particles.
• a lab coat or gloves for beta particles.
• a lead shield or thick concrete wall for
gamma rays.
• limiting the amount of time spent near a
radioactive source.
• increasing the distance from the source.
Radiation Protection

In a nuclear pharmacy, a person working

Different types of radiation penetrate the with radioisotopes wears protective clothing
body to different depths. and gloves and uses a lead glass shield on a
syringe.
Radiation Protection
Learning Check

Indicate the type of radiation (alpha, beta, and/or

gamma) protection for each type of shielding.

A. heavy clothing
B. paper
C. lead
D. lab coat
E. thick concrete
 Solution

Indicate the type of radiation (alpha, beta, and/or

gamma) protection for each type of shielding.

A. heavy clothing alpha, beta

B. paper alpha
C. lead alpha, beta, gamma
D. lab coat alpha, beta
E. thick concrete alpha, beta, gamma
Nuclear Equation

 Recall that…
 Radioactive Decay

A process called radioactive decay

• describes how a nucleus spontaneously breaks
down emitting radiation.
• is described by writing a nuclear equation.

Radioactive nucleus → New nucleus + Radiation

Nuclear Equation

In a nuclear equation
Radioactive nucleus → New nucleus + Radiation
• the sum of the mass numbers on each side of the
equation must be the same.
• the sum of the atomic numbers on each side of
the equation must be the same.
Examples:

23892 U  42He + 23490 Th

Alpha emission

Notice the mass numbers: 238 = 4 + 234

Notice the atomic numbers: 92 = 2 + 90
Examples:

146C  0-1e + 14
7N
Beta emission

Notice the mass numbers: 14 = 0 + 14

Notice the atomic numbers: 6 = -1 + 7
Check point (Academic)

Complete the worksheet called “Nuclear

Decay” in your packet. Complete both sides.
Half-Lie of a Radioisotope

The half-life of a radioisotope is the time for the

radiation level (activity) to decrease (decay) to one-
half of its original value.
Decay Curve -a diagram illustrating the decay of a radioactive isotope.
Half-life

 Is an amount of time so measured in SECONDS,

MINUTES, HOURS

 t1/2
Half-life

 The time required for half of the atoms in any given quantity of
a radioactive isotope to decay

 Example: Oxygen-15 has a half life of 2 minutes

Half life for oxygen-15

0 100g

2 min

first HL 50g

2 min

second HL 25g (4 min total)

Using Half lives in calculations

Carbon-13 emits beta radiation and decays to

nitrogen-13 with t1/2 = 10 min. Assume a starting
mass of 2.00 g.
A) How long is four half lives?
B) How many grams of nitrogen-13 will still exist
after three half lives?
Answers:

A) One half life is 10 minutes. Four half lives will

be 40 minutes.

B) 0.25 g remains after three half lives.

Half-Life

 For example, suppose you have 10.0 grams of strontium – 90,

which has a half life of 29 years. How much will be remaining
after 116 years? # of ½ lives Amount Time (Years)
Remaining (g)
 You can use a HAT table:
0 10 0
1 5 29
2 2.5 58
3 1.25 87
4 0.625 116
Half-Life

 Or an equation!
Calculations for half-life

 As an example, Technetium-99 has a half-life of 6

hours.This means that, if there is 100 grams of
Technetium is present initially, after six hours, only 50
grams of it would be left.After another 6 hours, 25
grams, one quarter of the initial amount will be left.
And that goes on like this.
 Half life example problem (HAT method)

Technetium-99 has a half-life of 6 hours. How

much Tc-99 will be left after 18 hours if you start
with 64.2 g?
# of Half lives Amount Remaining Time (hours)
(g)
Answer: 8.025 g
0 64.2 0

1 6

2 12

3 18
Try these (Academic)

 Handout p. 35 “Half life of radioactive isotopes”

Nuclear Power Plants

 A Nuclear reactor is a device to

initiate, and control, a sustained
nuclear chain reaction.
 The most common use of nuclear
reactors is for the generation of
electrical power from a nuclear
reaction.
How Does a Nuclear Reactor Work? FISSION

 Boil Water!
1. Produce heat
2. Boil water into steam
3. Use steam to turn a turbine-generator
This is the same as a:
• Coal power plant
• Oil power plant
• Natural gas plant
• Solar thermal plant 41
How does a power plant work? FISSION

 Uranium-235 fuel is loaded up into the reactor—a giant concrete dome that's reinforced
in case it explodes. In the heart of the reactor (the core), atoms split apart and release
heat energy, producing neutrons and splitting other atoms in a carefully controlled
nuclear reaction.
 Control rods made of materials such as cadmium and boron can be raised or lowered
into the reactor to soak up neutrons (called neutron absorption) and slow down or speed
up (called neutron moderation) the chain reaction.
 Water is pumped through the reactor turning it into steam.
 The steam turns a turbine which is connected to an electricity generator and makes that
spin too.
 The generator produces electricity that flows out to the power grid—and to our homes.
How a Nuclear Power Plant Works

43
Nuclear Reactor Structure

 Reactor’s pressure vessel

typically housed in 8” of steel
 36” concrete shielding
 45” steel reinforced concrete
FISSION vs. FUSION

LARGE NUCLEUS  2 SMALLER 2 SMALL NUCLEI  ONE LARGER

ONES ONE
FISSION vs. FUSION

FISSION pros and cons

Cheap source of energy – produces a large amount of energy from a small amount
of mass (E = mc2)
-An explosion can send large amounts of radioactive materials in the atmosphere
- Living things can be harmed when exposed
- Not renewable
- The radioactive waste produced could give off radiation for thousand of years
- Pollutes the air and produces greenhouse gases
FISSION vs. FUSION

FUSION pros and cons

- No radioactive waste and greenhouse gases
- The hydrogen fuel (deuterium) needed is readily available in sea water
- The helium that is produced (product) is not radioactive
- The hydrogen isotopes used in fusion reactions do not produce high levels of
radiation (no danger of nuclear meltdowns)
-Challenging to produce on Earth
- Expensive
- No known material that can sustain such high reaction temperature
Nuclear Disasters

 Three Mile Island (March 28, 1979)

 Chernobyl (April 26, 1986)
 Fukushima, Japan, (March 11, 2011)