ECEG 4155

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 Basicsof Measurements and
Instrumentation

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 An act or result of comparison between an Unknown
quantity with a predefined standard
 After comparison the results are expressed in
numerical values

 The process converting any physical

 parameters to meaningful numbers

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1. The standards used must be accurately defined
and universal accepted

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The apparatus & method for measurement should be
provable

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1. Direct 2 Indirect
method method

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 The measurand ( unknown qty) is directly compared against
a standard, & results is in terms of numbers and units

 Egs:

 Length

 Mass

 Time

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 effect of the measurand on another known characteristics
or element is measured as a new quantity
 direct methods are not possible for measurement

 Not possible

 Not feasible

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Measurement by conversion
 the measurand is converted into directly measurable
quantity
Measurement by substitution
 The element carrying the measurand is placed into the
measuring device, and then substituted by some
accurately known standard.
The application of null method.
 Bridges method uses the null method which has a high
degree of accuracy.

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Purpose in industrial manufacturing and processing
 Improve the quality of the product
 Improve the efficiency of production
 Maintain the proper operation

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SENSING ELEMENT:
 This is in contact with the process and gives an output
which depends in some way on the variable to be measured.
Examples
 Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on
temperature
 Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain

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SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT:
 This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it
into a form more suitable for further processing, usually a
d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal.
 Examples
 Deflection bridge which convert an impedance change into
a voltage change
 Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts

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Signal processing element:
 This takes the output of the conditioning element and
converts it into a form more suitable for presentation
Example
 Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a
voltage into a digital form for input to a computer.
 Computer which calculates the measured value of the
variable from the incoming digital data.

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Data presentation element:
 This presents the measured value in a form which can
be easily recognized by the observer.
Examples
 Alphanumeric display
 Chart recorder
 Visual display unit (VDU).

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 1. MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS

 2. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

 3. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

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 VERY STATIC AND STABLE
 NOT FOR DYNAMIC APPLICATIONS
 they have moving parts, and hence Inertia problems
arises

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 Devices that used to describe physical properties of
electricity.
 eg,. Electric current, voltage, etc
 OUTPUT IS GENERALLY A MECHANICAL
MOVEMENTS
 LIMITED TIME OF RESPONSE

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 Devices consisting of a large number of small complex
parts of that utilize electricity.
Eg. Electronic computers or microchip
 More reliable
 Higher sensitivity
 Recording capabilities
 Measured and monitored even in remote locations
 Lower weight
 Lesser power consumption

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 When measurand is either
constant or slow varying
 A set of criteria that gives
meaningful description of
the quality of measurement
STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS
 Instruments and
measurements involved in
rapidly varying quantities
 To establish a relation b/w
the input and output in
terms of mathematical
equations
DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
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 The process of checking the instrument against a
known standard and………………….

 Subsequently to find

 ERRORS

 ACCURACY

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 Accuracy
 Sensitivity
 Reproducibility
 Drift
 Static error
 Dead Zone

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 Accuracy : - Closeness with which an instrument
reading approaches true value of the quantity being
measured

 Sensitivity : - Infinitesimal change in o/p

 Infinitesimal change in I/p

 Linearity : When the o/p is proportional to i/p

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 Dead time : - The time required by a measurement
system to begin to respond to change in the measurand

 Dead Zone : - Largest change of input quantity for

which there is no output of the instrument

 Reproducibility :- degree of closeness with which a

given value may be repeatedly measured

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Drift :- the gradual shift in the indication or record of the
instrument over an extended period of time.
 true value does not vary with time

 Zero Drift

 Span Drift

 Zonal Drift

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 Speed of Response

 Measuring Lag

 Fidelity

 Dynamic error

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Rapidity with which
a measurement
system responds to
changes in the
measured quantity
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 Retardation type  Time Delay type

 Response of the  The response of the

measurement systems system begins after a
begins immediately
after a change in dead time
measured quantity has even after the
occured application of input

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 FIDELITY  DYNAMIC ERROR

 Difference between the

 Ability of the measuring
true value and the
system to indicate the
quantity under
changes in the measured
measurement changing
quantity without any
with time
dynamic error

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 What is TRUE
VALUE ?
 [IDEAL VALUE]

 Defined as the average of an infinite

number of measured values, when
the average deviation due to various
contributing factor tends to ZERO
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 Δa = Am - At

 Δa = Static error
 Am = measured Value; At = True value

 Δa= ԑo = Absolute static error

 Δc= - (Δa)

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 Ԑr = Absolute error/ true value

 Δa / At = ԑo/At ; Δa = Am – At
 At= Am – Δa,
 At = Am - ԑo, WE KNOW THAT ԑo =ԑr. At

 At = Am - ԑr.At,
 At = Am/ (1+ԑr)

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 Deviations from the nominal value ( specified Value)
of a particular quantity

 Aa = A s + δA
 or
 Aa = A s - δA
 Aa = Assured Value
 A s = Nominal value
 δA = error

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 Ԑr = Aa – AS/ AS

 Defined as the ratio of the ERROR to the specified

magnitude of the quantity

 Aa – AS = Error

 AS= Nominal value or magnitude of the qty

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Gross Errors : - By human
mistakes in reading,
Systematic Errors
recording , calculations,
observing measurements

1. Instrumental Errors 2. Environmental Errors 3. Observational Errors

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 It is because of
◦1. Inherent short comings in the
Instrument

◦2. Misuse of the Instrument

◦3. Loading Effect

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 Errors because of
◦ 1.Un known happenings
◦ 2. Unaware disturbances
◦ 3. Very small factors

◦ Lumped together to give this errors

◦ Also called as RESIDUAL ERRORS

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RANDOM ERROR :- Analysis

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 Repeated measurements of given quantity are done by
using different

◦A. Test conditions

◦B. Instruments
◦C. Different methods and ways
◦D. Different Observers

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 HISTOGRAM
 ARITHMETIC MEAN
 STANDARD DEVIATION
 DISPERSION
 RANGE
 Statistical approach
 are used to optimize errors

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 DUMB INSTRUMENTATION
 Once measurement is made , the data should be processed by
the observer

 INTELLIGENT INSTRUMENTATION
 ???????

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Thank You

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