THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

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 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
All higher animals require oksigen to maintain their
metabolic processes
Include: the lung & system of tubes that link of gas
exchange with the external environtment
Divided into : conducting & respiratory portion
Conducting P : Nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx,
trachea,bronchi,bronchioles & terminal bronchioles
Respiratory P (where gas exchange takes place):
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar duct & saccus
Function : the exchange of 02 & C02 between inspired
air and blood
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 The Nose
Consist of bone, cartilage, muscle, connective tissue Its
skin is provided with very fine hairs & sebaceous
gland
Skin continues through anterior nostril into the vestibule
of the nose. Stratified squamous epithel bear stiff hair
that project into the airway; to help in excluding
particle of dust from inspired air
Nasal cavity is lined with mucus-secreting, pseudo
stratified cilliated epithelium. Dust particle trapped in
the layer of mucus on the surface of epithelium are
continually transported by ciliary action toward the
pharynx & disposed of by swallowing

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The ciliated columnar epithelium contains goblet cell,
rest on basal lamina, separated it from connective
tissue layer that contain mucus gland.
Mucus gland keeps the lining of nasal cavity moist
Beneath epithel on the lower nasal conchae are rich
venous plexus keeps warm the air as it passes
through the nose. This region is common site of
nose bleed.
Collection of lymphoid lie in connective tissue
beneath the epithelium; is characteristic of mucus
membrane of the nose especially near the pharynx

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THE OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM

Receptor for the sense of the smell located in nasal

epithelium that occupies the roof of the nasal cavity
and extend downward 8-10 µm on each side of the
septum & onto surface of the upper nasal conchae
The olfactory epithelium is a tall, pseudostratified
columnar epithelium about 60 µm thick. Consist of 3
kind cell; supporting cell, basal cell, olfactory cell.

1.Supporting cell : have broad, cylindrical apexis,

narrower bases, on their free surface are microvilli
submerged in fluid layer.
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2. Basal cell are small: they are spherical/cone-shaped &
form a single layer at the base of the epithelium.

3. Olfactory cell, evenly distributed among the suporting

cell, bipolar neurons ; their round nuclei occupy a zone
between the nuclei of the supporting cells &
connective tissue. On the surface are 6-8 olfactory cilia
nonmotile & extremly long. Unmyelinated fibers of
olfactory nerve are enmeshed in delicate connective
tissue rich in macrophage. Myelinated fibers located at
olfactory mucosa originate from N.trigeminus

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Lamina propria olfactory mucosa contain rich of
blood capilaries, plexus of vein of lymphatic
capillaries & continue toward the lymph nodes on
either side of the head.
Olfactory glands of Bowman located in lamina
propria olfactory mucosa.

PARANASAL SINUSES
Connected with nasal cavity ,& forming cavity in
respective bones are Frontal,
Ethmoidal,Sphenoidal, Maxillary sinuses.
Cover by ciliated epithelium, few goblet cell, lamina
propria contain few & small gland
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Paranasal Sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity
through small opening . The mucus produced in
this cavity drains into the nasal passage as a result
of the cavity of its ciliated epithelial cell.
Paranasal Sinuses are often a site of painful
inflamation, sinusitis, & occasionally require
surgical drainage.

NASOPHARYNX
The first part of the pharynx , continuing caudally
with the oropharynx, the oral portion of this organ
Cover with ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium, & contact with the soft palate.

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LARYNX
An elongated structure of irregular shape,that
connect the pharynx to the trachea.
The wall contain hyaline & elastic cartilage
Large cartilage : thyroid, cricoid, & most of
arytenoid are hyalin cartilage
Small cartilage : Epiglotis, Cuneiform,
corniculate, & tip of the arytenoid are elastic
cartilage
Cartilage serve as valve to prevent swallowed
food or fluid from entering the trachea

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EPIGLOTTIS
Is anterior surface of the Larynx, extend into the pharynx & has
both lingual & laryngeal surface are covered by striated
squamous epithelium
In the adult, ciliated epithelium ussually begins at the base of
epiglottis & extend down the larynx,trachea, bronchi.
Toward the base of epiglottis on the laryngeal surface,the
epithelium undergoes a transition into ciliated pseudo
stratified columnar epithelium.
Mix mucus & serous gland are found beneath epithelium & a
few taste bud are scattered on under surface epiglotis
Below the epiglottis, the mucosa form 2 pairs of fold that
extend into the lumen of larynx. The upper pairs constitute
the false vocal cord (vestibular fold) cover by ciliated
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
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 The lower pairs of fold constitute the true vocal
cord.
Large bundles of parallel elastic fibers that compose
the vocal ligament lie within the vocal fold are
covered by striatified squamous epithelium
Larynx contains several rich plexus of lymphatic
which lead into the upper cervical lymph nodes to
trachea
The superior laryngeal nerve carries sensory to the
mucous membrane.
The inferior laryngeal nerve send motor nerve to the
muscle of the larynx.

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 TRACHEA
Is flexible tube about 11 cm long & 2 cm in diameter its
lined by ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
with unusually thick basal lamina & many goblet cell;
are similar to those GIT.
In lamina propria are 16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline
cartilage that keep the tracheal lumen open,cartilage
encircle on its ventral & lateral aspect
The incomplete cartilage ring separated by interspaces
that are bridged by fibroelastic ligament& smooth
muscle bind to perchondrium ligament prevent
overdistention of the lumen, & muscle allows
regulation of the lumen.
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Contraction of the muscle & resultant narrowing of the
tracheal lumen are used in the cough reflex. The
smaller bore of the trachea after contraction provide
for increased velocity of expired air, which aids in
clearing the air passage.
Network lymphatic is beneath the tracheal epithel &
communicate with plexus in the submucosa
The nerve branch of the vagus
The posterior wall of the trachea adjacent to the
esophagus is devoid of cartilage

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 BRONCHI
Trachea divided into 2 primary bronchi, enter the right &
left lung at the hilus.
The left lung has upper & lower lobes
The right has upper, middle & lower lobes
These lobar bronchi divide repeatedly, giving rise to
smaller bronchi, whose terminal branches are called
bronchioles.
Each bronchiol enters a pulmonary lobule, where it
branches to form 5-7 terminal bronchioles .
The Structure of primary bronchi is very similar with
trachea up to the point where they enter the lung
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The bronchial epithelium is ciliated columnar with
goblet cell & associated submucosal gland
The latter diminish in number,& end at the level at
bronchioles
The height of the epithelium gradually decrease along
the tract, becoming cuboidal in bronchiole &
sparsely ciliated,low cuboidal in terminal bronchiole
The bronchial cartilage more irreguler in shape than
trachea.cartilage ring completely encircle the lumen.
Smooth muscle become more prominent near the
respiratory zone

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Lamina propria bronchi is rich in elastic fiber & contain
abundance of mucous & serous gland
BRONCHIOLES
No cartilage nor gland in mucosa,scattered goblet cell
within the epithelium of initial segmen. In larger
bronchioles lied by ciliated pseudo stratified
columnar& decreases into ciliated columnar or
cuboidal epithelium in terminal.
The epithelium of terminal bronchioles also contains
clara cells ,no cilia, granulated at apex, secreted
protein for protect oxidativ pollutant

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Bronchiolar lamina propria is composed largely of
smooth muscle & elastic fiber
RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES
Terminal bronchioles divided into 2 or more
respiratory bronchioles that serve as region of
transition between conducting & respiratory portion.
Structurally identical with terminal B. except that
their walls are interupted by numerous saclike
alveoli where gas exchange.
Cover by ciliated cuboidal epithel, no ciliated & clara
cell, but the rim of alveolar opening the bronchiolar
epithel become continous with the squamous
alveolar lining cell
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ALVEOLAR DUCT
Lined by attenuated squamous alveolar cell
Lamina propria surrounding the rim of the alveoli is
network of smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle disappear at distal end of alveolar
duct,
Rich matrix of elastic&colagen fibers provides the
support of the duct & alveoli
Alveolar duct open into atria that communicate with
alveolar sac.
Elastic&reticular fibers form network encircling the
opening atria, alveolar sac, alveoli.
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ALVEOLI
Structurally, alveoli resemble small pocket that are
open on one side,02 & C02 are exchanged between
the air & the blood
Structure of the alveolar walls is specilalized for
enhanching diffusion between the external & internal
environment.
Each wall lies between 2 neighbouring alveoli & its
therefore called interalveolar septum, or wall (consist
of 2 thin squamous epithelial layer between which lie
capilari, elastic,reticular fiber conn.
Tissue,macrophage,leukocyt,fibroblast)
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The alveolar epithelium consist of 2 cell types:
1.The type I alveolar cell(squamous alveolar cell)
2. The type II alveolar cell(granular pneumocyte)
Type I alveolar cell(97% alveolar surface), have
occluding junction that prevent the leakage of tissue
fluid into the alveolar space. Structurally, Function:
to provide a barrier of minimal thickness that is
readily permeable to gases.
Type II alveolar cell are interspered among I. Are round
cell, rest on basement membrane. Secreted
lipoprotein.

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Lung Macrophage
Also called dust cell , are found in the interior of
interalveolar septum & are often seen on the surface
of the alveolus
Numerous carbon-&- dust laden macrophage in the
connective tissue arround a major blood vessel or in
pleura
Alveolar pores
Interalveolar septum contains pore, that connect
neighbouring alveoli.
Function: equalize air pressure in the alveoli & promote
the collateral circulation of air when a bronchiole is
obstructed.
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Alveolar-Lining Regenaration
Inhalation of N02 destroy most of the cell lining the
alveoli(I&II)
The action of this compound or other toxic substances
with the same effect is followed by increase mitosis
activity of II ,continously renewal of both its own
population (I&II)
Pleura
Is the serous membrane covering the lung. It consist of
2 layers;parietal &visceral, that contious in region of
the hillum.Both of membran consist cell resting on
fine conn.tissue colagen & elastic fiber.

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The parietal & Visceral layers define a cavity entirely
lined by squamous mesothelial cells.
Pleura contain a film of liquid that act as lubricant from
derived the blood plasma by exudation.
Is the great number of blood capilaries & lymphatic
vessel distributed in pleura.
PULMONARY BLOOD VESSEL
The lung receive most of their blood from the
pulmonary arteries.
The pulmonary artery is ussually above & behind its
accompanying bronchial tube, whereas the veins is
below and in front of it.

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Within the lung the pulmonary artery branches, as
companying the bronchial tree,branches are
surrounded by adventitia of the bronchi &
bronchioles. At the level of the alveolar duct, the
branches artery form cappilary network in the
alveolar septum
Most of the blood carried by the bronchial arteries is
brought back by the pulmonary veins.
LYMPHATICS
Follow the bronchi & pulmonary vessel,interlobular
septum, pleura, no terminal bronchiole nor alveolar
duct.

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NERVES
Parasymphatic & symphatic efferent innervate the lung
General visceral afferent : pain sensation
Most of the nerve are found in the connective tissues
surrounding the larger airway.
HISTOGENESIS
Lung is processus of ventral from anterior intestine wall when
embrio.
Lung developt in 3 phase: glandular, canalicular, alveolar
phase
1. Glandular phase(12-16 week)
as a processus become trachea,divides into 2 branches to
be bronchus. This processus was faster developt &
reach the group of mesenkim cell. Eventually gland
appearance.
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2. Canalicular phase (4-7 month)
Processus of mesenkim faster develop become
blood capilaries arround the branch, but the
alveolus not yet develop.

3. Alveolar phase(61/2-birth)
There was blood vessel, tip of bronhus develop to
be branch. At the end of this phase alveolar are
available.

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