Understanding & use of

measuring instruments
Tachometer, Lux meter, Yarn tension meter &
Package hardness tester
 Tachometers

Source : Aliasgar Kutiyanawala

Doctoral Student
Utah State University
Tachometer, What’s That?
 Tachometer is used for measuring rotational speed
 Can be used to measure speed of a rotating shaft
 Can also be used to measure flow of liquid by attaching a
wheel with inclined vanes
What Are the Different Types of
Tachometers?
 Tachometers can be classified on the basis of data
acquisition – contact or non contact types
 They can also be classified on the basis of the
measurement technique – time based or frequency
based technique of measurement
 They can also be classified as analog or digital type
Comparison Between Analog and Digital
Tachometers
Analog Tachometer
 Has a needle and dial type
of interface
 No provision for storage
of readings
 Cannot compute average,
deviation, etc
Digital Tachometer
 Has a LCD or LED
readout
 Memory is provided for
storage
 Can perform statistical
functions like averaging,
etc
Digital Tachometers
Classification Based on Data Acquisition
Technique
 Contact type – The wheel of the tachometer needs to be
brought into contact with the rotating object
 Non Contact type – The measurement can be made
without having to attach the tachometer to the rotating
object
Classification Based on Measurement
Technique
 Time Measurement – The tachometer calculates speed by
measuring the time interval between the incoming pulses
 Frequency Measurement – The tachometer calculates
speed by measuring the frequency of the incoming pulses
 Comparison Between Contact and Non
Contact Tachometers
Contact Type
 The tachometer has to be in
physical contact with the
rotating shaft
 Preferred where the
tachometer is generally fixed to
the machine
 Generally, optical encoder /
magnetic sensor is attached to
shaft of tachometer
Non Contact Type
 The tachometer does not need
to be in physical contact with
the rotating shaft
 Preferred where the
tachometer needs to be mobile
 Generally, laser is used or an
optical disk id attached to
rotating shaft and read by a IR
beam or laser
 Comparison Between Time and
Frequency Based Measurement
Time Based
 The tachometer calculates
speed by measuring the time
interval between pulses
 More accurate for low speed
measurement
 Time to take a reading is
dependant on the speed and
increases with decrease in
speed
 The resolution of the
tachometer is independent of
the speed of the measurement
Frequency based
 The tachometer calculates
speed by measuring the
frequency of pulses
 More accurate for high speed
measurement
 Time to take a reading is
independent of speed of
rotation
 The resolution of the
tachometer depends on the
speed of the rotating shaft
Typical Specifications of a Non Contact Type
Tachometer
 Display 5 digits large LCD
 Range: 2.5 - 99,999 RPM
 Distance: 50 to 1,000 mm; 12 to 40 inches.
 Resolution: 0.1 RPM<1000 RPM (2.5 to 9,999 RPM)
1.0RPM >1000 RPM
 Measurement angle: at less than 120 degrees.
 Range selection: Auto
 Laser Output Power: <1mW class II
 Sampling Time: 1.0 seconds (over 60 RPM)
 Memory: Last value, Max Value, Min. Value
 Time base: Quartz crystal
 Circuit: Exclusive one-chip LSI circuit
 Battery: 4 X 1.5V AA
 Weight: 300g/0.65lb
 Size: 190 X 72 X 37 mm
Typical Specifications of a Contact Type
Tachometer
 Display 5-digit LCD Display
 Range selection Automatic range selection
 Time Base 4MHz Quartz Crystal
 Sampling Time 1 second (>60 rpm); >1 second (10 to 60 rpm)
 Accuracy ± (0.1% of reading + 2 digits)
 Photo Tachometer Distance 2 to 12” (5 to 30cm)
 Operating Temperature 32 to 122oF (0 to 50oC)
 Operating Humidity 80% RH Max.
 Power supply 9V Battery
 Battery Life 40 hours (approx.)
 Applicable standards EN 50081-1/1992 (EN 55022) EN 50082-1/1997 (EN 55024)
 Dimensions 461700: 4.9 x 2.0 x 1.3” (124 x 51 x 33mm)
 Weight 461700: 4.0 oz. (114g)
Block Diagram of a Digital Tachometer

Display

External
Optical / Signal Microcontroller Port (to
Magnetic Sensor Conditioning controller)

Memory
Optical Sensing
 It is used to generate pulses proportional to the
speed of the rotating shaft
 Can be achieved by the following ways:
 Attaching a disk, which has an alternate black and white
pattern, to the shaft and reading the pulses by a IR module
pointed towards it
 Using a slotted disk and a U shaped IR emitter detector pair
to generate waveforms
Magnetic Sensing
 Hall effect sensors – These make use of the Hall effect to
generate pulses proportional to the speed of the shaft
 Passive magnetic sensors – These make use of variable
reluctance to generate pulses
Signal Conditioning
 The output of the sensors may be noisy
 The output may have to be amplified
 It has to be digitized. This is done by Schmitt triggering so
as to bring voltage to TTL levels
Microcontroller
 Not essential, but is generally the norm to have a
microcontroller
 Compute the speed
 Can store the readings
 Can output values to a display unit
 Give out warning signal when speed reduces / increases
beyond set margins
 Transfer data to external controller
Display Unit
 Used to output the values to the operator
 Can be used to view the stored values
Analog Tachometers
Analog Tachometers
 These are generally the ones that display the speed of
your car
 The interface is needle and dial arrangement
Analog Measurement Techniques
 Generally speed is converted to voltage through the use
of an external frequency to voltage converter
 The tachometer can also act as a generator and produce
a voltage that is proportional to the speed of the shaft
 This voltage is then displayed by an analog voltmeter
How To Choose a Tachometer?
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Range
 Acquisition Time
 Contact type / Non Contact type
 Portable / Fixed
 Digital / Analog
 Cost
Calibration
 Why calibrate?
 Wrong calibration = Wrong readings
 Calibration compensates for ageing, wear and tear and other
degrading effects
 How to calibrate?
 Calibration is done by comparing the reading from
tachometer to a standard speed
 Necessary changes are made so that the actual reading
matches the desired reading
Hardness Test
Hardness is:
The resistance of a material to deformation, abrasion,
scratching, penetration, resistance to cutting, lack of
malleability etc.
Materials with higher hardness have higher Tensile Strength
and Brittleness
Softer material are more ductile
Brinell Test - Load over Area Test

Introduced by Dr. Jonathan Brinell in 1900.

Brinell Test Method – ASTM Standard
E10
1. Press a 10mm (3/8") diameter ball into material with a
known amount of load.

2. Measure diameter of the indentation.

3. Calculate hardness according to the formula

How to calculate hardness #?

P
BNH 
D / 2D  D2  d 2 
P – load in kg
D – diameter of the ball in mm
d – diameter of indentation in mm
P/D2 ratio for Brinell test
Material P/D2 ~BHN
Steels and
30 Over 100
cast iron
Copper and Al
10 30-200
alloys
Pure Al 5 15-100
Tin, lead and
1 3-20
their alloys
Limitations of the Brinell
Hardness Test
a) Sample must be ten times thicker than the indentation
depth (sample usually should be at least 3/8" thick).

b) Test is most accurate if the indentation depth is 2.5 - 5.0

mm. Adjust load to achieve this.

c) Test is no good if BHN > 650

d) Sensitivity problem
Advantages of the Brinell Test

 Widely used and well accepted

 Large ball gives good average reading with a single
test
 Accurate
 Easy to learn and use
Disadvantages of the Brinell Test

 Destructive
 Non-portable
 High initial cost ($5,000)
 Error due to operator reading Brinell Microscope
(10%max)
Hardness and Tensile Strength

Tensile Strength = BHN x 500 [psi]

Microhardness Test – another
load over area test
 Vickers:
 ASTM E384 – micro force ranges –
10g to 1kg
 ASTM E92 – macro force ranges –
1kg to 100kg
 Knoop - ASTM E384
Vickers
 developed in England is 1925 and was formally known as
the Diamond Pyramid
 Range HV= 100-1000
Vickers test

All Vickers ranges use a 136° pyramidal diamond

indenter that forms a square indentation.
Vickers Test Method
 The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately controlled test
force.
 The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10 – 15 seconds.
 After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving an indent
in the sample that appears square shaped on the surface.
 The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring the two
diagonals of the square indent.
 The Vickers hardness number is a function of the test force divided by the
surface area of the indent. The average of the two diagonals is used in the
following formula to calculate the Vickers hardness.
 HV = Constant x test force / indent diagonal squared

 HV = 1854.4 x P/d2
Knoop Test

Knoop testing is done with a rhombic-based pyramidal

diamond indenter that forms an elongated diamond shaped
indentation
Knoop Test Method
 The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately controlled test
force.
 The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10 – 15 seconds.
 After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving an indent
in the sample that appears square shaped on the surface.
 The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring the longest
diagonal of the diamond shaped indent.
 The Knoop hardness number is a function of the test force divided by the
projected area of the indent. The diagonal is used in the following formula
to calculate the Knoop hardness.
 HK = Constant x test force / indent diagonal squared

 HK = 14229 x P/d2
Advantages of the Vickers-Knoop Test
 One scale covers the entire hardness range.
 A wide range of test forces to suit every application.
 Nondestructive, sample can normally be used.
 The small diamond indenter and low test forces
allows testing very small parts or material features
not capable if being tested any other way
Disadvantages of the Vickers and Knoop
Test
 The main drawback of the Vickers and Knoop test is
the need to optically measure the indent size. This
requires that the test point be highly polished to be
able to see the indent well enough to make an
accurate measurement.
 Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the
sample preparation time.
Rockwell Hardness Test
 Introduced in 1919 by Stanley Rockwell
 Manufacturing started in 1920 by Charles Wilson
 Wilson revised the Rockwell method
Rockwell Test Procedure –
ASTM Standard E18
 Select Scale - load and indentor depending on the scale
 Press the indenter into material
 - Diamond Indenter (Brale)
 - 1/16" ball
 - 1/8" ball
Machine measures depth of penetration
and computes hardness
Rule of Thumb:
 Keep indentations 2-3 diameters apart
 Select the scale to keep reading between 20-80
 For Steel:
If HRA > 60, use HRC scale
If HRA < 60, use HRB scale
Limitations of the Rockwell Test

1) Sample must be ten times thicker than the indentation depth

(sample usually should be at least 1/8" thick).

2) Need 3 tests (minimum) to avoid inaccuracies due to

impurities, hard spots

3) The indenter travel is limited to 100 Rockwell points or

0.2mm.
Advantages of the Rockwell Test
 Widely used and well accepted
 Little operator subjectivity – direct reading
 Accurate
 Fast
 Large range of scales (plastics to steels)
 Regular surface preparation (polishing not needed)
Disadvantages of the Rockwell
Test
 Destructive
 Non-Portable
 Initial cost ($5,000)
 Compared to Brinell the device is not as rugged and need
adjustments
 Small impressions not so representative as Brinell
Rockwell regular scales
(10kg minor load)
Scale Indenter Major Typical Applications of Scales
Symbol Load
kgf

HRA Brale® 60 Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel
Diamond

HRB 1/16" ball 100 Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys, malleable iron

HRC Brale® 150 Steel, hard cast irons, pearlitic malleable iron, titanium, deep case hardened
Diamond steel and other materials harder than B100

HRD Brale® 100 Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
Diamond

HRE 1/16" ball 100 Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys, bearing metals

HRF 1/16" ball 60 Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals

HRG 1/16" ball 150 Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons. Upper limit G92 to avoid
possible flattening of ball
HRH 1/8" ball 60 Aluminum, zinc, lead

HRK 1/8" ball 150

HRL 1/4" ball 60
HRM 1/4" ball 100 Bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials, including plastics (See
HRP 1/4" ball 150 ASTM D785). Use smallest ball and heaviest load that do not give anvil effect.
HRR 1/2" ball 60
HRS 1/2" ball 100
HRV 1/2" ball 150
Rockwell Superficial scales (3kg load)
Scale Symbol Indenter Major Typical Applications of Scales
Load
kg

HR15N Brale® Diamond 15 kg • Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case
HR30N 30 kg hardened steel
HR45N 45 kg • Steel, hard cast irons, pearlitic malleable iron,
titanium, deep case hardened steel and other
materials harder than B100
• Thin steel and medium case hardened steel
and pearlitic malleable iron
HR15T 1/16" ball 15 kg • Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys,
HR30T 30 kg malleable iron
HR45T 45 kg • Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals
• Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable
irons. Upper limit G92 to avoid possible
flattening of ball
HR15W 1/8" ball 15 kg • Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys,
HR30W 30 kg bearing metals
HR45W 45 kg • Aluminum, zinc, lead
• Steel, hard cast irons, pearlitic malleable
HR15X 1/4" ball 15 kg
HR30X 30 kg
HR45X 45 kg
HR15Y 1/2" ball 15 kg
HR30Y 30 kg
HR45Y 45 kg
Shore Scleroscope Hardness
 Is a very old hardness testing originating in the early
1900's
 Is a dynamic test that drops a diamond tipped
hammer vertically from a fixed height onto the
surface of the material under test.
 The height of the rebound of the hammer is a
measure of the hardness of the material.
 Scleroscopes are no longer produced, however many are
still in use.
 testers used a glass tube graduated from 0 to 140 to
measure the rebound. The operator would observe the
height of the rebound on the graduated glass tube.
 Used on a wide variety of metallic parts but the size of the
sample should be large enough to support the rebound.
 They do not leave an indent so the part can be used after
testing without refinishing.
LUX METER
What is lux meter
 Device for measuring brightness
 Measures the intensity with which the brightness appears
to the human eye
 This is different than measurements of the actual light
energy produced by or reflected from an object or light
source
What is Lux?
 1 Lux = 1 lumen / 1
square meter
 1 Lumen = 1 Candela
 1 candela = Brightness of
one candle
How does Lux meter work?
 lux meter works by using a photo cell to capture light.
The meter then converts this light to an electrical
current.
 Measuring this current allows the device to calculate the
lux value of the light it captured.
Lux light level
chart
Yarn Tension Meter
Introduction
 Extensive usage in textile industry
 Used to measure the tension of yarn when it under goes
winding process
 Also warp and weft yarn tension measured while weaving
 Sewing: Tension of needle thread needs to be at required
levels to get correct stitch formation
A mechanical yarn tension meter
Classification of yarn tension meter
 Mechanical
 Electrical
 Electromechanical
Operating principle of electronic tension
meter

Strain gauges are used

Strain produced by yarn extends the metallic
resistive foil
Change in length changes the resistance
By measuring resistance change tension is
measured