2015 Ch2 Transmission - Foundations

Wireless
Comminication
Chapter 2: Transmission Fundamentals

Outline
2.1 Signals for Conveying Information
2.2 Analog and Digital Transmissions
2.3 Channel Capacity
2.4 Transmission Media
2.5 Multiplexing
Signals For Conveying Information
 Time Domain Concepts
 Frequency Domain Concepts
 Data Rate and Bandwidth

Time Domain Concepts
• Analog signal: the signal intensity varies in a

smooth fashion over time.
– No breaks or discontinuities.
• Digital signal: the signal intensity maintains a

constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level.
• Periodic signal:
the same signal
pattern repeats
over time.
• Periodic signal:
Mathematically, a signal s(t) is defined to be periodic
if and only if
s(t+T)=s(t) －∞＜t＜＋∞
Where the constant T is the period of the signal (T should be
the smallest value that satisfies the equation).
• Otherwise, a signal is aperiodic： analog or
digital signal pattern that doesn't repeat over
time
• Sine wave is the fundamental periodic analog signal.
– Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the
signal over time; typically measured in volts
– Frequency (f )
• Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal repeats
– Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of
the signal. Equivalent parameter of f.
• T = 1/f
– Phase () - measure of the relative position in time within a
single period of a signal.
– Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of
the signal
• Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two
consecutive cycles
• General sine wave
s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
This figure shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters
(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz,  = 0; thus T = 1s (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½ (d) Phase shift;  = /4 radians (45 degrees）
note: 2 radians = 360°= 1 period

[Example] If the solid curve in the figure represents sin(2πt),
what does the dotted curve represent? If the dotted curve can
be written in the form Asin(2πft+), what are A, f, and ?
[Solution] s(t)=2sin(4πt+π); A=2, f=2Hz, =π rad

• When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2.3,
graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in
space as a function of time
• With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the
value of a signal at a given point in time as a function
of distance
– At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal
varies as a function of distance from the source
– Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of

the signal
• Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two
consecutive cycles
• Assume signal is traveling with a velocity v.
3 108
• The wavelength is related to the period as:  = vT.
• Equivalently : f=v
• Particularly: f=c, when v=c(c is the speed of the light
in free space, approximately m/s)
[Example] Sound may be modeled as sinusoidal functions.
Compare the wavelength and relative frequency of musical
notes. Use 330m/s as the speed of sound and the following
frequencies for the musical scale.
Note C D E F G A B
Frequency 264 297 330 352 396 440 495
[Solution] ∵f=v ∴=v/f

Note C D E F G A B
Frequency 264 297 330 352 396 440 495
Wavelength 1.25 1.11 1 0.938 0.833 0.75 0.667
Review Questions
[Review Questions]
– Differentiate between an analog and a digital
electromagnetic signal.
– What are the three important characteristics of a
periodic signal?
– How many radians are there in a complete circle of
360 degrees?
– What is the relationship between the wavelength
and frequency of a sine wave?
Cellular Systems
Wireless LANs
Lecture 1 Review Wireless applications:
WiMAX
Wireless
Satellite systems:
Systems
History and future Paging Systems
Coverage regions:
Bluetooth
WhatSpectral auctions
is wireless communications?
Ultrawideband radios
Free to use Official standard
Zigbee radios
CurrentUnderlay
wireless systemEnsuring
system interoperability
Public standard
Spectrum and standards
Technique challenges
Signals for Conveying Information
 Time Domain Concepts
- Analog signal
- Digital signal
- Periodic signal
Frequency Domain Concepts
• In practice, an electromagnetic
signal will be made up of
many frequencies. For
example,
s( t )  (4 /  )  (sin( 2ft )  (1 / 3) sin( 2 (3f ) t ))
• The components of this signal

are just sine waves of
frequencies f and 3f.
• Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components of a
signal are integer multiples of one frequency, it’s referred to as
the fundamental frequency.
• The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the

fundamental frequency. (In this case, the period of s(t) is T=1/f)
[Example] A signal has a fundamental frequency of 1000Hz.

What is its period?
[Solution] The period of this signal is T=1/f=1ms.

• Using a discipline known as Fourier analysis,

any signal is made up of components at
various frequencies, in which each component
is a sinusoid.
• Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to
consist of a collection of periodic analog
signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases.
• Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains
(in this example, the spectrum extends from f to 3f)
• Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a
signal (3f-f=2f)
• Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) – when
signals have an infinite bandwidth, narrow band of
frequencies that most of the signal’s energy is
contained in
Data Rate and Bandwidth
• The greater the bandwidth, the higher the

information-carrying capacity.
• [Example] Consider a square wave. Let a positive pulse
represent binary 0 and a negative pulse represent binary 1. the
wave form represent binary stream 0101…The duration of
each pulse is 1/(2f), thus the data rate is 2f bits per second(bps).
• [Example] Consider again Figure 2.4. By adding together sine
waves an frequencies f and 3f, we get a waveform that begins
to resemble the square wave. Let us continue this process by
adding a sine wave of frequency 5f, and then adding a sine
wave of frequency 7f.
• [Example] As we add additional odd multiples of f, suitably

scaled, the resulting waveform approaches that of a square
wave more and more closely.
• So the frequency components of the square wave with
amplitudes A and –A can be expressed as follows:
4 
sin( 2kft )
s( t )  A   
 k odd,k 1 k
• This waveform has an infinite number of frequency
components and infinite bandwidth.
• Most of the energy in this wave form is in the first few
frequency components.
• If we limit the bandwidth to just the first 3 frequency
components, the shape of the resulting waveform is reasonably
close to original square wave.
• The relationship between data rate and bandwidth.
• 【Case I】 Approximate square wave with the waveform of
Fig 2.5a. If we let f=1MHz, then bandwidth B=5f-f=4MHz. We
treat this waveform as a bit string of 1s and 0s, so one bit
occurs every 0.5μs. Then the data rate R=1/0.5μs=2Mbps.
• 【Case II】 Approximate square wave with the waveform of
Fig 2.5a. If we let f=2MHz, then bandwidth B=5f-f=8MHz. At
this time T=0.5μs, so one bit occurs every 0.25μs. Then the
data rate R=1/0.25μs=4Mbps.
• 【Case III】 Approximate square wave with the waveform
of Fig 2.4c. If we let f=2MHz, then bandwidth B=3f-f=4MHz.
At this time T=0.5μs, so one bit occurs every 0.25μs. Then the
data rate R=1/0.25μs=4Mbps.
【Case I 】 B=4MHz, R=2Mbps
【Case II 】 B=8MHz, R=4Mbps
【Case III】 B=4MHz, R=4Mbps
【Conclusions】
– If other things being equal, by doubling the
bandwidth, we double the potential data rate.
– A given bandwidth can support various data rates.
• Conclusions
– Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
– BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth that

can be transmitted
– AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth

transmitted, the greater the cost
– HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions

Review Questions
[Review Questions]
– What is the frequency components of the square
wave with amplitudes A and –A?
– What is the relationship between absolute
bandwidth and effective bandwidth
– What is the relationship between a signal’s
spectrum and its bandwidth?
Outline
2.5 Multiplexing
Analog and Digital Transmissions
 Analog and Digital Data
 Analog and Digital Signaling
 Analog and Digital Transmission

Analog and Digital Transmissions
• Data - entities that convey meaning, or information
• Signals - electric or electromagnetic representations
of data
• Transmission - communication of data by the
propagation and processing of signals
Analog and Digital Data
• Analog Data: take on continuous values in

some interval. Continuously varying parterns
of intensity
– Video
– Audio
– Most data collect by sensors, temperature and
pressure
• Digital: take on discrete values.
– Text
– Integers
Analog and Digital Data
Analog and Digital Signaling
• Analog Signals
– A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be
propagated over a variety of media, depending on
frequency
– Examples of media:
• Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
• Fiber optic cable
• Atmosphere or space propagation (wireless)
– Analog signals can propagate analog and digital data
• Analog signals can represent and hence
propagate analog and digital data.
– Analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited

frequency spectrum. Such data can be directly represented
by an electromagnetic signal occupying the same spectrum.
– The telephone instrument does just that.
• Analog signals can represent and hence
– Digital data can also be represented by analog signals by

use of a modem.
– The modem will convert a series of binary voltage pulses
into an analog signal by modulating a carrier frequency.
• Digital Signals
– A sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a copper wire medium
– Generally cheaper than analog signaling
– Less susceptible to noise interference
– Suffer more from attenuation (next page)
– Digital signals can propagate analog and digital
data
Figure 2.7 shows a sequence of voltage pulses, generated by a

source using two voltage levels, and the received voltage some
distance down a conducting medium. Because of the
attenuation of signal strength at higher frequencies, the pulses
become rounded and smaller.
• Digital signals can represent and hence
– Analog data can be represented by digital signals. The

device that performs this function for voice data is a codec.
The codec approximates the analog data by a bit stream.
• Digital signals can represent and hence
– Digital data can be represented directly by two voltage

levels in binary form.
• Reasons for Choosing Data and Signal Combinations
– Digital data, digital signal
• Equipment for encoding is less complex and less expensive than
digital-to-analog equipment
– Analog data, digital signal
• Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
– Digital data, analog signal
• Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals
• Examples include satellite etc.
– Analog data, analog signal
• Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Analog and Digital Transmission
• Analog Transmission
– Transmit analog signals without regard to content
– Attenuation limits length of transmission link
– Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy for longer
distances but cause distortion
• Analog data can tolerate distortion
• Introduces errors in digital data
• Digital Transmission
– Concerned with the content of the signal
– Attenuation endangers integrity of data
– Can be propagated only a limited distance.
– Digital Signal
• Repeaters are used to achieve greater distance
• Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
Review Questions
[Review Questions]
– What is the relationship between data and signal?
– How many data and signal combinations are there?
Explain the reason for choosing a particular
combination?
– What is the difference between analog and digital
transmission?
Outline
2.5 Multiplexing
Channel Capacity
• Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be

achieved. A variety of impairments can distort or
corrupt a signal.
• For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit
data rate?
• Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which data
can be transmitted over a given communication path,
or channel, under given conditions.
Channel Capacity
• Concepts Related to Channel Capacity

– Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps)
– Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as
constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the
transmission medium (Hertz)
– Noise - average level of noise over the communications
path
– Error rate - rate at which errors occur
• Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
Channel Capacity
• Communication facilities are expensive. The greater

the bandwidth of a facility, the greater the cost.
• All transmission channels of any practical interest are
of limited bandwidth.
– The physical properties of the transmission medium
– Deliberate limitations at the transmitter on the bandwidth to
prevent interference from other source
• Make as efficient use as possible of a given bandwidth
– For digital data, get as high a data rate as possible at a
particular limit of error rate for a given bandwidth.
– The main constraint on achieving this efficiency is noise.
Channel Capacity
• Nyquist Bandwidth
– Consider a channel that is noise free, the limitation
on data rate is simply the bandwidth
– If the rate of signal transmission is 2B, then a
signal with frequencies no greater than B is
sufficient to carry the signal rate.
– Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate
that can be carried is 2B.
– This limitation is due to the effect of intersymbol
interference.
Channel Capacity
– For binary signals (two voltage levels), Nyquist

formulation is:
• C = 2B
– With multilevel signaling (each signal element can
represent more than one bit)
• C = 2B log2 M
– M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
• In this case the data rate can be increased, but this
places an increased burden on the receiver-it must
distinguish one of M possible signals.
• Example
Channel Capacity
• Relationship among data rate, noise and error

rate:
– The presence of noise can corrupt one or more bits.
– If the data rate is increased, the bits become
‘shorter’ .
– More bits are affected by a given pattern of noise.
– At a given noise level, the higher the data rate, the
higher the error rate.
Channel Capacity
• A greater signal strength would improve the ability to
receive data correctly in the presence of noice.
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio
– Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the
noise that’s present at a particular point in the transmission
– Typically measured at a receiver
– SNR expresses the amount in decibels that the intended
signal exceeds the noise level.
signal power
( SNR) dB  10 log 10
noise power
– A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low number of
required intermediate repeaters
Channel Capacity
• SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate

• Shannon Capacity Formula
– Equation:
 S
C  B log 2 1  SNR  B log 2  1  
 N
– Represents theoretical maximum that can be achieved
– In practice, only much lower rates achieved
• Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
• Impulse noise is not accounted for
• Attenuation distortion or delay distortion are not accounted for
Channel Capacity
 S
C  B log 2 1  SNR  B log 2  1  
 N
• [Conclusions]
– By increasing the SNR, the capacity could be
increased
– By increasing the bandwidth, the capacity may be
increased, but there is a limitation because the
noise power is relative to bandwidth as well.
Channel Capacity
• [Example] Spectrum of a channel is between 3 MHz

and 4 MHz; SNRdB = 24 dB
B  4 MHz  3 MHz  1 MHz
SNRdB  24 dB  10 log 10 SNR
SNR  251
– Using Shannon’s formula
C  10  log 2 1  251  10  8  8Mbps
6 6
Channel Capacity
• How many signaling levels are required?
C  2 B log 2 M
 
8 106  2  106  log 2 M
4  log 2 M
M  16
Channel Capacity
[Example] What is the channel capacity for a channel with a
300Hz bandwidth and a signal-to-noise ratio of 3dB?
[Solution] C  B log 1  SNR  300  log (1  3)
2 2
 600 b / s
[Example] Given a channel with an intended capacity of
20Mbps, the bandwidth of the channel is 3MHz. What signal-
to-noise ratio is required to achieve this capacity?
C  B log 2 1  SNR   3 MHz  log 2 (1  SNR)
[Solution]
 20 Mbps
SNR  2 20 3  1
Review Questions
[Review Questions]
– Define channel capacity.
– What is the relationship among data rate, noise and
error rate?
– What key factors affect channel capacity?
– What is the relationship and difference between
the works of Shannon and Nyquist on channel
capacity?
Outline
2.5 Multiplexing
Transmission Media
• Transmission Medium
– Physical path between transmitter and receiver
• Guided Media
– Waves are guided along a solid medium
– E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
• Unguided Media
– Provides a means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
– Usually referred to as wireless transmission
– E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Transmission Media
• The characteristics and quality of a data transmission

are determined both by the characteristics of the
medium and the signal.
– Guided Media: the medium itself is more important.
– Unguided Media
• Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna
• The bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna
is more important than the medium
• Configurations for wireless transmission: directionality.
– Omnidirectional , at lower frequencies
– At higher frequencies, it is possible to focus the signal into
directional
Transmission Media
• General Frequency Ranges

– Radio frequency range
• 30 MHz to 1 GHz
• Suitable for omnidirectional applications
– Microwave frequency range
• 1 GHz to 40 GHz
• Highly directional beams possible
• Suitable for point-to-point transmission
• Used for satellite communications
– Infrared frequency range
• Roughly, 3×1011 to 2×1014 Hz
• Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within
confined areas
• Does not penetrate walls, the security and interference problems are
not present
Transmission Media
• Terrestrial Microwave
– Description of common microwave antenna
• Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
• Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
• Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna
• Located at substantial heights above ground level
– Applications
• Long haul telecommunications service
• Short point-to-point links between buildings
Transmission Media
• Satellite Microwave
– Description of communication satellite
• Microwave relay station
• Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
• Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies
or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency
(downlink)
– Applications
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks
Transmission Media
• Broadcast Radio
– Description of broadcast radio antennas
• Omnidirectional
• Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
• Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise alignment
– Applications
• Broadcast radio
– VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
– Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
Review Questions
[Review Questions]
– Differentiate between guided media and unguided media.
– What are some major advantages and disadvantages of
microwave transmission?
– Why must a satellite have distinct uplink and downlink
frequencies?
– Indicate some significant differences between broadcast
radio and microwave.
Outline
2.5 Multiplexing
Multiplexing
• Capacity of transmission medium usually

exceeds capacity required for transmission of a
single signal
• Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a
single medium
– More efficient use of transmission medium
Multiplexing
This figure depicts the multiplexing function in its simplest form.

The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from the n input
lines and transmits over a higher capacity data link. The
demultiplexer accepts the multiplexed data stream, separates
(demultiplexes) the data according to channel, and delivers them
to the appropriate output lines.
Multiplexing
• Reasons for Widespread Use of Multiplexing:

– The higher the data rate, the more cost effective the
transmission facility
• Cost per kbps of transmission facility declines with an increase in
the data rate
• Cost of transmission and receiving equipment declines with
increased data rate
– Most individual data communicating devices require
relatively modest data rate support, for most client/server
applications, a data rate of up to 64 kbps is generally more
than adequate.
Multiplexing Techniques
– Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

• Takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of
the medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given
signal
• A number of signals can be carried simultaneously if
each signal is modulated onto a different carrier
frequency
• The carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated so that
the bandwidths of the signals do not overlap
• Six signal sources are fed into a multiplexer that modulates each signal
onto a different frequency.
• Each signal requires a certain bandwidth centered around its carrier
frequency, referred to as a channel.
• To prevent interference, the channels are separated by guard bands, which
are unused portions of the spectrum (not shown in the figure).
– Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

• Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate
of the medium exceeds the required data rate of a digital
signal
• Multiple digital signals can be carried on a single
transmission path by interleaving portions of each signal
in time
• The interleaving can be at the bit level or in blocks of
bytes or larger quantities.
• Multiplexer has six inputs that might each be 9.6kbps. A single line with a
capacity of 57.6 kbps could accommodate all six sources.
• Analogously to FDM, the sequence of time slots dedicated to a particular
source is called a channel.
• One cycle of time slots (one per source) is called a frame.
Multiplexing
• Synchronous TDM: time slots are pre-assigned and

fixed. The timing of transmission from the various
sources is synchronized.
• Asynchronous TDM: allows time on the medium to
be allocated dynamically.
Multiplexing
• A number of signals mi(t) are to be multiplexed onto the same transmission
medium.
• The incoming data from each source are briefly buffered.
• The buffers are scanned sequentially to form a composite digital data
stream mc(t).
• The scan operation is sufficiently rapid so that each buffer is emptied
before more data can arrive.
• The data rate of mc(t) must at least equal the sum of the data rates of the
mi(t).
Multiplexing
• The transmitted data may have a format like the figure below.
• The data are organized into frames. Each frame contains a
cycle of time slots.
• In each frame, one or more slots is dedicated to each data
source.
• The sequence of slots dedicated to one source, from frame to
frame, is called a channel.
• The slot length equals the transmitter buffer length,
Multiplexing
• At the receiver, the data are demultiplexed and routed to the

appropriate destination buffer.
• For each input source mi(t), there is an identical output source
that will receive the input data at the same rate at which it was
generated.
Multiplexing
• Synchronous TDM is called synchronous because the time

slots are pre-assigned to sources and fixed. The time slots for
each source are transmitted whether or not the source has data
to send. This is also the case with FDM.
• In both cases, capacity is wasted to achieve simplicity of
implementation.
• Even when fixed assignment is used, it is possible for a
synchronous TDM device to handle sources of different data
rates.
• For example, the slowest input could be assigned one slot per
cycle, while faster devices are assigned multiple slots per
cycle.
Multiplexing
• A combination of TDM and FDM is possible.

• A transmission system can be frequency
divided into a number of channels, each of
which is further divided via TDM
Review Questions
[Review Questions]
– Why is multiplexing so cost-effective?
– How is interference avoided by using frequency
division multiplexing?
– Explain how synchronous time division
multiplexing (TDM) works?
Appendix A: Decibles
• It is customary to express gains, losses, and

relative levels in decibels. Because:
– Signal strength often falls off logarithmically, so
loss is easily expressed in terms of the decibel,
which is a logarithmic unit.
– The net gain or loss in a cascaded transmission
path can be calculated with simple addition and
subtraction.
• The decibel is a measure of the ratio between two

signal levels. The decibel gain is given by:
Pout Pout
G dB  10 log 10  10 lg
Pin Pin
GdB  gain, in decibels
Pin  input power level
Pout  onput power level
log 10  log rithm to the base 10
• The decibel is a measure of relative, not absolute.

Table: Decibel Values

• The decibel is also used to measure the difference in voltage,

taking into account that power is proportional to the square of
the voltage:
V2
P
R
where P  power dissipated across resistance R
V  voltage across resistance R
• Thus
2
Pout V out R Vout
GdB  10 lg  10 lg 2  20 lg
Pin Vin R Vin
• It is convenient to be able to refer to an absolute level of power

or voltage in decibels so that gains and losses with reference to
an initial signal level may be calculated easily.
• The dBW (decibel-Watt) is used extensively in microwave
applications.
• The value of 1W is selected as a reference and defined to be
0dBW.
• The absolute decibel level of power in dBW is defined as:
PowerW
PowerdB  10 lg
1W
• Another common unit is the dBm (decibel-

milliWatt), which uses 1mW as the reference.
Thus 0dBm=1mW. The formula is
PowermW
PowerdBm  10 lg
1mW
• Note the following relationships:

 30dBm  0dBW
0dBm  30dBW
• [Example] A power of 1000W is 30 dBW.

A power of 1mW is -30dBW.
A power of 1000W is 60dBm.
A power of 1mW is 0dBm.
• There is some inconsistency in the literature over the use of

terms gain and loss.
• If the value of GdB is negative, this represents an actual loss in
power.
• For example, a gain of -3dB means the power has halved.
Some literature say that there is loss of 3dB, but some would
say that there is loss of -3dB.
• We use the first methods. Define a decibel loss as
Pout Pin
LdB  10 lg  10 lg
Pin Pout
[Example] If an amplifier has a 30dB voltage gain, what voltage
ratio does the gain represent?
[Solution] P
G  10 lg out  30
dB
Pin
Pout
 10 3  1000
Pin
[Example] An amplifier has an output of 20W. What is its output
in dBW?
[Solution] PowerW 20W
PowerdB  10 lg  10 lg
1W 1W
 13dB
• [Example] Decibels are useful in determining the gain or loss

over a series of transmission elements. Consider a series in
which the input is at a power level of 4mW, the first element is
a transmission line with a 12dB loss, the second element is an
amplifier with a 35dB gain, and third element is a transmission
line with a 10dB loss. To calculate the output power.
[Solution] The net gain is (-12+35-10)=13dB.

Pout
GdB  10 lg  13
4mW
Pout  4  101.3 mW  79.8mW
Recommended Reading
• Stallings W. Data and Computer Communications

• Couch L. Digital and Analog Communication
Systems.

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Chapter 2: Transmission Fundamentals

2.1 Signals for Conveying Information

2.2 Analog and Digital Transmissions

2.3 Channel Capacity

2.4 Transmission Media

 Time Domain Concepts

 Frequency Domain Concepts

 Data Rate and Bandwidth

• Analog signal: the signal intensity varies in a

• Digital signal: the signal intensity maintains a

note: 2 radians = 360°= 1 period

[Solution] s(t)=2sin(4πt+π); A=2, f=2Hz, =π rad

– Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of

[Solution] ∵f=v ∴=v/f

• The components of this signal

• The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the

[Example] A signal has a fundamental frequency of 1000Hz.

[Solution] The period of this signal is T=1/f=1ms.

• Using a discipline known as Fourier analysis,

• The greater the bandwidth, the higher the

• [Example] As we add additional odd multiples of f, suitably

– BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth that

– AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth

– HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions

2.1 Signals for Conveying Information

2.2 Analog and Digital Transmissions

2.3 Channel Capacity

2.4 Transmission Media

 Analog and Digital Data

 Analog and Digital Signaling

 Analog and Digital Transmission

• Analog Data: take on continuous values in

– Analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited

– Digital data can also be represented by analog signals by

Figure 2.7 shows a sequence of voltage pulses, generated by a

– Analog data can be represented by digital signals. The

– Digital data can be represented directly by two voltage

2.1 Signals for Conveying Information

2.2 Analog and Digital Transmissions

2.3 Channel Capacity

2.4 Transmission Media

• Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be

• Concepts Related to Channel Capacity

• Communication facilities are expensive. The greater

– For binary signals (two voltage levels), Nyquist

• Relationship among data rate, noise and error

• SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate

• [Example] Spectrum of a channel is between 3 MHz

• How many signaling levels are required?

2.1 Signals for Conveying Information

2.2 Analog and Digital Transmissions

2.3 Channel Capacity

2.4 Transmission Media

• The characteristics and quality of a data transmission

• General Frequency Ranges

2.1 Signals for Conveying Information

2.2 Analog and Digital Transmissions

2.3 Channel Capacity

2.4 Transmission Media

• Capacity of transmission medium usually

This figure depicts the multiplexing function in its simplest form.

• Reasons for Widespread Use of Multiplexing: