Flammability, Combustion,

and Fire Protection

 Objectives

• Know and understand:

– Principles of combustible and flammable liquids,
including limits, and classification
– Basics of fire chemistry
– Fire classes
– How extinguishing agents work
• Be familiar with
– Types of fire extinguishers
– How to control flammable liquid hazards
– Basic fire prevention and protection
 Fire Hazards
• Annual $2.2 billion loss
• Over 300 workplace deaths
• Over 3% of workplace fatalities
• Fire losses can be catastrophic
– Unlike other hazards, the event may not be self-
limiting
• Fire hazards MUST be controlled to a
low level of probability, as losses are so
high
 Flammability limits
• Lower explosive limit, LEL (also LFL)
– The minimum concentration of vapor in air below
which a spread of flame does not occur when the
vapor is in contact with a source of ignition
– Acetone LEL = 2.5%
• Upper explosive limit, UEL (also UFL)
– The maximum concentration of vapor in air above
which a spread of flame does not occur when the
vapor is in contact with a source of ignition.
– Acetone UEL = 12.8%
• Explosive range (also flammable range)
– The spread between the LEL and UEL
– Acetone explosive range = 2.5 - 12.8%
LEL Concentration UEL
 Relationship between toxicity
and flammability

TLV PEL IDLH LEL UEL O2 deficient

1 - 100 ppm 1000-5000 ppm 1-20 percent

Toluene Example:
•TLV=50 ppm, •LEL = 1.1%,
•PEL = 200 ppm, •UEL 7.1%
•IDLH = 500 ppm,
 Definitions
• Ignition temperature
– The temperature at which ignition (production of
flame) and burning will be continued after the
source of ignition or the source of heat is removed
• Flash point
– The lowest temperature at which enough vapor is
given off near the surface of a liquid to produce a
flammable mixture with air.
• Flammable liquid
– Liquids with a flash point below 100 F
• Combustible liquid
– Liquids with a flash point 100 F or greater
 OSHA and NFPA
Classification
NFPA OSHA Flashpoint Boiling point
Flammable 4 IA <73F < 100F
Liquids
3 IB <73F >100F
3 IC >73 - <100F
Combustible 2 II >100 - <140F
liquids
2 IIIA >140 - <200F
1 IIIB >200F
Non- 0
combustible
 Fire Types

• Flame fire
– Gases or vapors
– High burning rate
• Surface fire
– Burning rate may be slow
• Explosion
– An event leading to a rapid increase of
pressure
 Explosions

• Deflagration
– Combustion wave propagates at subsonic velocity
• Detonation
– Combustion wave propagates at supersonic
velocity
• Gas or vapor explosion
– Combustion of pre-mixed gas or vapor
• Dust explosion
– Finely divided solids, suspended in air
 Explosions

• BLEVE
– Boiling Liquid Expanding
Vapor Explosion
– Flash evaporation after
vessel rupture
– May not involve
combustion
 Chemistry of Fire
• Combustion
– Rapid oxidation
• Combustion components
– Oxygen
• Atmosphere (21%)
• Chemical oxidizers
– Fuel
• Solids
– Surface-to-mass ratio
• Gaseous
• Liquids (vapors)
• BGases
 Chemistry of Fire
• Combustion components (cont.)
– Heat
• Heat of combustion
• Other sources of heat: (ignition)
– Chemical reactions
• Decay
• Slow oxidation
– Electricity
• Arcing
• Resistance
– Mechanical friction
– Chemical Chain Reaction
• Propagated by free radicals
 Products of combustion
• Heat • Acid Gases
• Soot, smoke – Hydrogen Chloride
• Carbon dioxide – Sulfur dioxide
• Carbon monoxide• Nitrogen oxides
– Incomplete • Ammonia
combustion
• Hydrogen cyanide • Acrolein
• Hydrogen sulfide • Metal Fumes
• Phosgene
 The Fire Triangle

• Four
components:
– Oxygen
– Heat
– Fuel
– Reaction
• Removing any
component
stops the fire
 Extinguishing a fire
• Cooling
– Applying water
• Removing Fuel
– Shut off supply to gas or liquid fires
– Pump liquid from burning tanks
• Limiting oxygen
– Mechanical smothering
– Foam
– Displace oxygen with inert gas
• Interrupt chain reaction
– Capture free radicals using an extinguishing agent
 Fire Classification

• Class A
– Ordinary combustibles
– Wood, paper, rubbish
– Extinguish with water
• Class B
– Flammable liquids
– Water may aggravate a burning liquid fire
– Extinguish with foam, chemical agents
 Fire Classification

• Class C
– Fires in electrical equipment
– Use non-conductive extinguishing agent
• Class D
– Combustible metal fires
– Extinguish by smothering with dry powder
– Water will cause burning metals to explode
• Special categories
 Extinguishing agents
• Water
– Removes heat from a fire
– Streams, spray or fog
– Best for Class A fires
– Not for electrical or combustible metal fires
• Water mist may be used on electrical fires. These are
special fire extinguishers, filled with distilled water, that
produce a fine mist (no solid stream of water)
• Foam
– Excludes oxygen from burning liquid fires
– Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)
– Fire can re-ignite if foam breaks down
 Extinguishing agents

• Inert Gases
– Displaces oxygen
– Carbon dioxide, nitrogen
• Halogenated Hydrocarbons
– Inhibit chain reactions
– HALON (bromo-fluoro-chloro-hyrdrocarbons)
– Carbon tetrachloride (historically)
– Ozone depleting
– New, more ozone-friendly agents are available
 Extinguishing agents
• Dry Chemical
– Inhibit chain reactions
– Sodium or potassium bicarbonate
– For Class B or C fires
• Multipurpose Dry Chemical
– Monoammonium phosphate
– For Class A, B, or C fires
– Excludes oxygen by coating surfaces
• Dry Powder
– Excludes oxygen from burning metal
– Sodium chloride, graphite
 Fire Extinguishers
• Water
– For Class A fires
– Minimum 2 1/2 gallons or 2A
– "A" unit rating = 5 quart water
or equivalent
– Usually stored pressure type
– Inverting soda-acid
extinguisher are obsolete and
dangerous
• Foam
– For Class A or B
– Stored pressure
 Fire Extinguishers

• Dry Chemical
– Class ABC or BC
– "B" unit rating = 1
square foot flammable
liquid fire
– No rating for "C“
– Stored pressure or
cartridge- operated
 Fire Extinguishers

• Liquified Gas
– CO2, Class BC
– HALON, Class
ABC
• Dry powder
– Class D (no
rating)
– Cartridge
operated
 OSHA Requirements for Fire
Extinguishers
• Placement
– Maximum 75 foot travel distance for "A" or "D“
– Maximum 50 foot travel distance for "B“
• Inspection
– Monthly visual
– Annual maintenance
– 5-year hydrotest
• 12 yr. hydrotest for dry chemical or HALON (6 yr. recharge)
• Training and Education
– For all workplaces with fire extinguishers
 Using a Fire Extinguisher

• P.A.S.S.
– Pull Pin
– Aim at base of fire
– Squeeze handle
– Sweep back and forth
 Controlling Fire Hazards

• Flammable liquid
safety
– Limit quantities
– Store liquids in
flammable liquid
cabinets or rooms
– Use "Safety" cans
– Ventilation
– Pressure relief valves
 Controlling Fire Hazards
• Flammable liquid safety
– Controlling ignition sources
• Grounding and bonding
• Non-sparking tools
• Approved dispensing hoses
• Classified "explosion proof"
wiring
• "Hot Work Permit“
– For welding, etc.
– Test for LEL
– Observer stands by with
extinguisher or fire hose
 Controlling Fire Hazards

• Fire Suppression
Systems
– Automatic sprinklers
• Wet pipe (buildings)
• Dry pipe (industrial)
– Deluge
– Dry chemical
– CO2, HALON