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What is ecology?
Uses both quantitative and descriptive
research
Combines information and techniques
from many scientific fields:
– Mathematics
– Chemistry
– Physics
– Geology
– And many others
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Aspects of Ecological Study
Biosphere: portion of
the Earth that
supports life
– High in atmosphere to
bottom of ocean
– Extends several
kilometers above the
Earth’s surface and
several kilometers
below the surface of the
ocean
– Comparable to peel of
an apple
– Very diverse climate
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Living thing affected by:
Abiotic factors
– Air currents
– Temperature
– Moisture
– Light
– Soil composition
– Terrain
– And many others
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Living thing affected by:
Biotic factors
– Same species for
protection,
competition, food,
and reproduction
– Other species for
all but reproduction
Tree decay
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Levels of Organization in Ecology
Need to study
more than just an
individual to get
the whole story
Need to study
relationships or
interactions among
organisms of the
same and different
species
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Levels of Organization in Ecology
Biosphere
–Ecosystem
Community
–Population
Organism
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Populations
A group of
organisms of one
species that
interbreed and live
together in the
same place at the
same time
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Populations
Compete with each other for food,
water, space, light and other
resources in short supply
How organisms share resources
determines how far apart they live
and how large a population gets
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Populations
Some species
reduce competition
by larvae and adult
stages living in
different
environments and
using different
resources as food
(frogs and many
insects)
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Individuals Interact within
Communities
Community: collection of interacting
populations (all the populations at
one place and time)
Change in one population will cause
change in another population
– Small changes
– Large changes
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Interactions among living things
and abiotic factors
Ecosystem: interaction of
populations in a community and
nonliving (physical) surroundings
Three kinds of ecosystems
– Terrestrial (land)
– Fresh water
– Marine: 75% of the earth
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Organisms in Ecosystems
Habitat: place where an organism lives its
life (home)
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Organisms in Ecosystems
Niche: the role and position a species
plays in its environment
– All the interactions with abiotic and
biotic factors
– Everything the species does
– How it uses resources
– Its job
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Organisms in Ecosystems
Even though two species occupy the
same habitat, they do not occupy the
same niche because resources (food,
shelter) are used in different ways
It is an advantage for a species to
occupy a different niche, unique
strategies are important to reduce
competition
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Organisms in Ecosystems
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Symbiosis
Permanent, close association
between two or more organisms of
different species
Three types of symbiosis
– Commensalism
– Mutualism
– Parasitism
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Commensalism
One species benefits, other species
not harmed or benefited
Few examples because further study
usually reveals mutualism or
parasitism
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Commensalism
Cattle egrets follow
cattle to feed on
the insects stirred
up by the grazing
cattle.
Egret benefits as it
gets more food
Cattle is neither
helped nor harmed
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Commensalism
Orchids growing on
trees have a home
and moisture
Orchids benefit
while the tree is
not affected
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Mutualism
Both species benefit
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Mutualism
A remarkable 3-way
mutualism appears to
have evolved between an
ant, a butterfly
caterpillar, and an acacia
in the American
southwest. The
caterpillars have nectar
organs which the ants
drink from, and the
acacia tolerates the
feeding caterpillars. The
ants appear to provide
some protection for both
plant and caterpillar.
Research of Diane Wagner, American Museum of
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Natural History Southwestern Research Station
Parasitism
One organism benefits the other is
harmed but usually not killed
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How Organisms Obtain Energy
Ultimatesource of energy is the sun
Producers use the sun’s energy to
make food
Consumers eat producers of other
consumers
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How Organisms Obtain Energy
Autotrophs: “auto” = self; “troph”=
energy
– Most are photoautotrophs: organisms
that use the sun’s energy to make food
in the process of photosynthesis; all
have chlorophyll
– Some are chemoautotrophs; make food
by using energy stored in chemical
bonds (some Archaebacteria)
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Photoautotrophs
Cyanobacteria
Plants
Algae
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How Organisms Obtain Energy
Heterotrophs:“hetero”= other;
“troph”= energy
– Can’t make food so must feed on other
organisms
– Herbivores: only eat autotrophs
– Carnivores: only eat other heterotrophs
– Omnivore: eat both autotrophs and
heterotrophs
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How Organisms Obtain Energy
Heterotrophs:“hetero”= other;
“troph”= energy, cont.
– Scavengers: feed on dead (carrion and
refuse)
– Decomposers: breakdown and absorb
nutrients from dead organisms (fungi,
protozoans, many bacteria)
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Heterotrophs
Carnivore
Decomposer
Scavenger
Herbivore
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How Organisms Obtain Energy
Detritivores
– Eat fragments of
dead matter in an
ecosystem, and
return nutrients to
the soil, air, and
water where the
nutrients can be
reused by
organisms.
– Also considered
heterotrophs
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Matter and Energy Flow
Food Chains: simple model to show
energy flow in an ecosystem; one possible
route
Food web: several interconnected food
chains
– shows that an organism occupies more than
one trophic level
– Expresses more possible feeding relationships
at each trophic level
– More realistic than a food chain
31
Food Chain
Arrows indicate direction energy
flows
Usually 3 to 5 trophic (energy) levels
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Food Chain
Top Carnivore
Carnivore
Omnivore
Herbivore
Producer
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Food Web
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Food Web
Trophic level is one step in a food
chain
Organisms can occupy more than
one trophic level
Important part of organism’s niche is
how it obtains energy
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Energy and Trophic Levels
Energy Pyramid
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Energy Pyramids
Pyramid of Numbers
– Count the number of
organisms at each
level
– Numbers decrease as
move up the pyramid
– Not always reveals
true relationship as
one tree (producer)
could support 50,000
insects (herbivore)
37
Energy Pyramids
Pyramid of Biomass
– Use dry weight of
organisms at each
level
38
Energy Pyramids
39
Cycles in Nature
Energy flows, nutrients cycle
Atoms of carbon, nitrogen and other
elements in your body today made up the
bodies of other organisms
Matter including nutrients are constantly
recycled
The cycling of nutrients in the biosphere
involves both matter in living organisms
and physical processes found in the
environment such as weathering.
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Nitrogen Cycle
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Phosphorus Cycle
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