Solar Energy

Why Solar?
Why Solar?
• India is blessed with abundant sunlight - 300 sunny
days/yr
Advantages of Solar Photovoltaic (PV)

• Reliability – no moving parts

• Simplicity – Less parts – no maintenance
• Modularity – Add modules - Power levels can be increased
• Silence - generating electricity in utter silence
 Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission Towards Building
SOLAR INDIA

The National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the Government of India and State
Governments to promote ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India’s energy
security challenge.

In launching India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change on June 30, 2008, the Prime
Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh stated:

“Our vision is to make India’s economic development energy-efficient. Over a period of

time, we must pioneer a graduated shift from economic activity based on fossil fuels to one
based on non-fossil fuels and from reliance on non-renewable and depleting sources of
energy to renewable sources of energy. In this strategy, the sun occupies centre-stage, as it
should, being literally the original source of all energy. We will pool our scientific,
technical and managerial talents, with sufficient financial resources, to develop solar
energy as a source of abundant energy to power our economy and to transform the lives of
our people. Our success in this Endeavour will change the face of India. It would also
enable India to help change the destinies of people around the world.”
ADVANTAGES OF ROOF TOP SOLAR PV SYSTEMS
ROOF TOP PV POTENTIAL IN INDIA
INCENTIVES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATION
 Accelerated Depreciation
WIND: Under this scheme, those who put up wind turbines could charge 80 %
depreciation of the value of the machines in their books for the purpose of
computing taxable income.

SOLAR: For solar system, a company can claim 80% depreciation in the first
year itself leading to savings on income tax on overall profit.
SOLAR GBI - STATUS IN TAMIL NADU

• The power purchase price fixed under the above scheme is Rs.15 per unit.
• Generation based Incentive (GBI) will be payable to the Utility by MNRE for
the power purchased from solar project.
• In the state of Tamil Nadu, TANGEDCO has to bear Rs.4.50/-( which is the
maximum tariff fixed by TNERC for every kind of renewable energy other than
solar ).

•Then the remaining amount Rs. (15.0 – 4.50) = Rs.10.50/- will be borne by
the MNRE.
• Under the above scheme , M/s. Sapphire Industrial Infrastructures Private
Limited have been selected by MNRE to establish 5 MW SPV
power plant at Rettai Pillai Iynarkulam village, New Kallatthur ,
Sivagangai Tk, Sivagangai district.
Source: MNRE,2014
 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

Light

• Solar thermal – utilizes the heat contained in the sun

• Solar Photovoltaic - utilizes the photon energy contained in
the sun light
 Average surface temperature is 5800 K

Hydrogen-73% 6.25x1011 W/m2

Helium-25%
Others-2%

The hydrogen in the sun is continuously going through the process of fusion, where in
four hydrogen atoms combine to give one heavy molecule of helium. This fusion process
gives out tremendous amount of energy, equivalent to the loss of mass in the process.
 SOLAR ENERGY

SUN – HYDROGEN, HELIUM

Sun energy escapes in the form of visible light &other radiation
Even over the vast distance, an enormous amount of energy
reaches Earth from the sun.

170 million GW

186000 miles/s
 GEOMETRY OF THE SUN & EARTH

June-July 6.25x1011 W/m2

December-January
1322 W/m2
1416 W/m2
156 million km
146 million km

23.5o

• Earth reflects 1/3rd of sunlight

• Orbit of earth’s revolution is elliptical, so its distance from sun varies as it revolves
by 1.7%
• Closest in Dec-Jan – Perihelion; Farthest in June-July – Aphelion
• The radiant flux or the power (W/m2) from the Sun varies through the year by ±4%
• Earth’s axis is inclined at an angle 23.5o
 Irradiance and Irradiation

•Irradiance
•The amount of power received by a
surface per unit area in W/m2

•Irradiation or Insolation
•The amount of energy received by a
surface per unit area over a given period
of time in Wh/m2
•Solar irradiance is solar power per
unit area on a surface.

•The SI units is watts per square meter

(W/m2 or kW/m2) - power

• IRRADIATION is the energy of

electromagnetic radiation ( Wh/m2)
The inverse square law states that irradiance is
reduced in proportion to the inverse square of the
distance from the source.
Solar intensity changes with distance.As distance is doubled, for
example, the energy is spread over four times the area. This results in an
intensity that is one-fourth its original strength.
Solar irradiation equals the total solar
irradiance over time i.e. the energy from
sun.
 • Solar radiation at Earth’s
surface is 1 kW/m2 in a
wavelength band between
0.3µm and 2.5µm.

•This power is utilized thermally or

photo-physically

Infrared – Utilized for Solar Thermal

applications
Visible region – Utilized for Solar PV
applications
 ENERGY OF PHOTON

The energy of a photon is proportional to its

frequency and inversely proportional to
wavelength:

Energy per photon

Eg = hv = hc/λ (1)
(joules)

wavelength
Planck’s constant: Frequency (s-1) (in meters)
6.63 x 10 -34 joules-s

Speed of light 3 ×108 m/s

• Short wavelength photons have higher energy & vice-versa.

• The wavelength of maximum emission of any body is inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature
• Higher the temperature shorter the wavelength of maximum emission.
• This is called Wien’s law

Speed
of light

Temperature in
K

Sun’s surface temperature is  6000 K

Earth’s surface temperature is  288 K
 SUN, EARTH RADIATION SPECTRUMS

Energy Density Distribution Of Energy Density Distribution Of

Solar Radiation At The Surface Of Solar Radiation At The Surface Of
The Sun The earth

• Radiation emitted from sun are short wavelengths peaking at 0.48 µm

• Radiation emitted from earth are long wavelengths peaking at 10 µm
i.e. Incoming solar radiation (shortwave) = Outgoing terrestrial radiation
(longwave)
EXTRATERRESTRIAL
RADIATION
 Spectral radiation uninfluenced by atmosphere

Extraterrestrial solar radiation – The radiation reaches the outer

atmosphere

• The area beneath this curve is called the SOLAR CONSTANT S = 1367 W/m2
• Is measured at the surface perpendicular to the sun rays on the top of the atmosphere
The Earth is curved and this
cause differing angles of
incidence.
 Atmo II 50

Solar Insolation

W&K
A square meter on earth will not receive the full solar constant, since the
solar radiation will not hit at right angle. And not all the radiation will reach
the ground.
Intensity of incoming solar radiation (insolation) is related to angle of
incidence. Higher angles = higher intensity.
Effects of the Seasons

Changes in solar intensity

Changes in solar altitude
Changes in day length
Changes in temperature

All of these changes are most extreme at high latitudes and

minimized at the equator.

Insolation Varies Depending on:

Time of Year
-Solar Declination
-Earth-Sun Distance
-Latitude
-Time of day (solar zenith)
-Atmoshperic Conditions (Clouds, smoke,
pollution, diffuse sky light
 • Extraterrestrial radiation varies with distance i.e. month of year as,

 360 n 
St  S  1  0.033 cos 
 365 
Where, St= extraterrestrial radiation measured on the nth day of the year
and S is the solar constant

Variation of extraterrestrial
solar radiation with time of the
year

Extraterrestrial solar radiation – radiation reaches the outer atmosphere

Terrestrial solar radiation – radiation that reaches the earth surface
 Atmospheric Effects on Incoming Solar Radiation

• Earth’s atmosphere is transparent to the incoming solar

radiation
• The incoming radiation are subjected to atmospheric
Absorption, Reflection and Scattering
• For eg. Ozone in the atmosphere stops or absorbs UV

ABSORBING FACTORS: SCATTERING FACTORS: REFLECTING FACTORS:

• Ozone – O3 • Air molecules • Earth surface
• O2 • Dust • Clouds
• N2 • Water droplets
• CO2
• CO
• Water vapour
H2O
Solar Radiation Budget to Earth
 30% Solar Energy Reflected
• Energy reflected by clouds, dust, surface
– Ave. incoming radiation 0.7 x 342 = 240 W m-2
• Certain wavelength radiations are largely
absorbed in the ionosphere
• O3 and water vapour largely absorb UV
( < 0.4 m) and IR ( > 2.3 m)

• Thus, wavelengths below 0.4 m and

wavelengths above 2.3 m are negligible

• Therefore, for terrestrial applications of solar

energy, only radiations of wavelength between
0.29 and 2.3 m are available.
Currently accepted values of solar constant (1 sun) are:
(a) 1360 W m-2 (NASA and (b) 1367 W m-2 (WMO)
The solar constant is the total integrated irradiance over the entire spectrum (the area
under the curve in the figure above, plus  3.7% at shorter and longer wavelengths
 Global radiation
• Solar radiation available at Earth’s surface consists of
• Direct or Beam radiation – It is the radiation propagating
along the line joining the receiving surface and the sun.
UNCHANGED IN DIRECTION( do not go either absorption
or scattering) (reaches earth surface directly)

• Diffuse radiation – It is the solar radiation scattered by

aerosols, dust and molecules. It does not have a unique
direction

• Albedo radiation – The radiation reflected by earth surface

• GLOBAL RADIATION = DIRECT + DIFFUSED +ALBEDO

 AIR MASS
• Atmospheric attenuation is characteristics
by the term air mass
• It is defines as the ratio of the optical
thickness of the atmosphere through
which beam radiation passes to the optical
thickness if the sun were at zinith.
 Air Mass
Air mass is a
representation of the
amount of atmospheric
matter the radiation must
pass through to reach
Earth’s surface.
1
AM 
cos z

Solar radiation
Air Mass
reaching the surface(W/m2)
AM0 (extra-terrestrial) 1367
AM1(sun at overhead position) 1105
AM1.5 (sun at about 48o from overhead position) 1000
AM2(sun at about 60o from overhead position) 894
Solar Measurement

• Pyranometer-Global
• Pyrheliometer-Direct
• Reference Cell-Global
Measurement of Solar Radiation on Earth’s Surface

Pyranometer – for Global

radiation(Solarimeter)

Pyrheliometer – for Direct

radiation(actinometer)

Sunshine recorder
Measurement of Solar Radiation on Earth’s Surface

Pyranometer – for Global

radiation

Pyrheliometer – for Direct

radiation

Sunshine recorder
 SOLAR MEASUREMENTS – SOME
TERMINOLOGIES
•Solar irradiance:
It is the solar power per unit area on
a surface.

•The SI units is watts per square

meter (W/m2 or kW/m2) – power -
instantaneous

• IRRADIATION is the energy of

electromagnetic radiation ( Wh/m2)
Solar irradiation equals the total solar irradiance over time i.e. the
energy from sun.
 Peak sun hours is an equivalent measure of total solar
irradiation in a day.
1000 W/m2 is peak sun irradiance

Example:
a day with an average irradiance of 600
W/m2 for 8 hr
Had only one hour of peak sun condition.
The total irradiation = 600 W/m2 × 8 hr
= 4800 Wh/m2
=4800Wh/m2 ÷1000W/m2
= 4.8 peak sun hr

• Sampled solar irradiance values - used to determine the total solar irradiation –
different sites
• Made available as solar maps – to understand solar potential – in an area – a
country etc .
Insolation map
Insolation is the solar irradiation received over a period of time, typically one
day.
Expressed as kWh/m2/day or equivalent peak sun hours.
Insolation is usually used to rate the solar energy potential of a location
Color-coded maps show how insolation varies for different regions of the
country and for different times of the year

kWh/m2/day

Source: TERI
 Sun Earth Angles

1. Angle of Incidence(θi)
2. Latitude(ϕ)
3. Solar Declination Angle(δ)
4. Hour Angle(ω)
5. Zenith Angle(θz)
6. Solar Altitude(α)
7. Solar Azimuth Angle(γs)
8. Surface Azimuth Angle (γ)
9. Tilt Angle (β)
 Angle of Incidence (I)
• It
is the angle between beam or direct radiation on a
surface and the normal to that surface
PATH OF SUN IN A DAY
Solar Window
Solar Window
 Latitude(ϕ)
LATITUDE OR ANGLE OF LATITUDE (): LATITUDE OF A LOCATION ON THE
EARTH’S SURFACE IS THE ANGLE MADE BY A RAIDAL LINE JOINING THE
GIVEN LOCACTION TO THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH WITH ITS PROJECTION
ON THE EQUATOR PLANE.

Position of
observer


 Solar Declination Angle
The declination angle, δ, varies seasonally due to the tilt of the earth on its axis of
rotation and the rotation of the earth around the sun.
 Solar Declination Angle

IT IS DEFINED AS THE ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT OF THE SUN FROM THE

PLANE OF THE EARTH’S EQUATOR.

SUN
 Solar Declination Angle
Alternatively:
The declination of the sun is the angle between the equator and a
line drawn from the centre of the Earth to the centre of the sun

δ
 Solar Declination Angle
The declination angle, denoted by δ, varies seasonally due to
the tilt of the Earth on its axis of rotation and the rotation of the Earth
around the sun.
 Hour Angle()
• The hour angle at any moment is the angle through which the earth must turn to
bring the meridian of the observer directly in line with the sun’s rays.
• At any moment it is the angular displacement of the sun towards east or west of
local meridian due to rotation of the earth on its axis.
Hour Angle(ω)

EARTH COMPLETES ONE ROTATION IN 24

HRS.

ONE HOUR = 15o of rotation

At solar noon sun’s rays are in line with the

local meridian.

ω = 0o.

ω is negative in the forenoon

ω is positive in the afternoon

For eg. 06:00 hr. is - 90o

18:00 hr. is + 90o

ω = [Solar Time - 12:00](in hrs.) 15 degrees

 Inclination angle or solar altitude - α

• Theangle between the sun’s ray and its

projection on a horizontal surface is
known as the inclination angle.
Zenith Angle (Z )
• Zenith angle is the angle between the sun’s ray
and the perpendicular to the horizontal plane.

• When sun is in the overhead position it is

called as zenith position.

• This is the angle between the line that points to

the sun and the vertical — basically, this is just
where the sun is in the sky.

• At sunrise and sunset this angle is 90º

 Solar Zenith (θz), Altitude (α) and Azimuth (γs) angles

Sun angles define the sun’s position, relative to an observer on Earth.

 Solar Azimuth angle - s

• The angle on a horizontal plane, between the

line due south and the projection of the sun’s
ray on the horizontal plane.
Surface Azimuth angle (γs) and Tilt or Slope angle ()
 Solar Array –Tilt Angle - 
• Slope or Tilt angle: The angle between the inclined plane surface (panel/collector)
under consideration and the horizontal.
• It is taken positive for surfaces sloping towards south and negative for surfaces
sloping towards north.
Latitude (), Tilt () and Angle of Incidence (i)
Solar Array –Tilt Angle
Panel Orientation
Array Tilt Angle
 Angle of Incidence (I)
• It
is the angle between beam or direct radiation on a
surface and the normal to that surface