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Linear Transformations
V , W:vector spaces
T : V W:A linear tra nsformatio n of V into W if the
following two properties are true
(1) T (u v) T (u) T ( v), u, v V
(2) T (cu) cT (u), c R
6.5
Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving
(because the same result occurs whether the operations of addition
and scalar multiplication are performed before or after the linear
transformation is applied)
6.6
Ex 2: Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2
T (u v) T (u1 v1 , u2 v2 )
((u1 v1 ) (u2 v2 ), (u1 v1 ) 2(u2 v2 ))
((u1 u2 ) (v1 v2 ), (u1 2u2 ) (v1 2v2 ))
(u1 u2 , u1 2u2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 )
T (u) T ( v)
6.7
(2) Scalar multiplica tion
cu c(u1 , u2 ) (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu) T (cu1 , cu2 ) (cu1 cu2 , cu1 2cu2 )
c(u1 u 2 , u1 2u 2 )
cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation
6.8
Ex 3: Functions that are not linear transformations
(a) f ( x) sin x
sin( x1 x2 ) sin( x1 ) sin( x2 )
(f(x) = sin x is not a linear transformation)
sin( 2 3 ) sin( 2 ) sin( 3 )
(b) f ( x) x 2
( x1 x2 ) 2 x12 x22
(f(x) = x2 is not a linear transformation)
(1 2) 2 12 22
(c) f ( x) x 1
f ( x1 x2 ) x1 x2 1
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) ( x1 1) ( x2 1) x1 x2 2
f ( x1 x2 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) (f(x) = x+1 is not a linear transformation,
although it is a linear function)
In fact, f (cx) cf ( x) 6.9
Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”.
6.10
Zero transformation (零轉換):
T :V W T ( v) 0, v V
Identity transformation (相等轉換):
T :V V T ( v ) v, v V
Theorem 6.1: Properties of linear transformations
T : V W , u, v V
(1) T (0) 0 (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=0)
(2) T ( v) T ( v) (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=-1)
(3) T (u v) T (u) T ( v) (T(u+(-v))=T(u)+T(-v) and property (2))
(4) If v c1v1 c2 v2 cn vn ,
then T ( v) T (c1v1 c2v2 cn vn )
c1T (v1 ) c2T (v2 ) cnT (vn )
(Iteratively using T(u+v)=T(u)+T(v) and T(cv) = cT(v)) 6.11
Ex 4: Linear transformations and bases
Let T : R 3 R 3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0) (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0) (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1) (0,3,1)
Find T(2, 3, -2)
Sol:
(2,3,2) 2(1,0,0) 3(0,1,0) 2(0,0,1)
According to the fourth property on the previous slide that
T (c1v1 c2v2 cn vn ) c1T (v1 ) c2T (v2 ) cnT (vn )
3 0 6
2
T ( v) Av 2 1 3
1
1 2 0
T (2,1) (6,3,0)
T ( v ) Av T : Rn
R m
※ If T(v) can represented by Av, then T is a linear transformation
※ If the size of A is m×n, then the domain of T is Rn and the
codomain of T is Rm 6.14
Ex 7: Rotation in the plane
Show that the L.T. T : R 2 R 2 given by the matrix
cos sin
A
sin cos
has the property that it rotates every vector in R2
counterclockwise about the origin through the angle
Sol:
v ( x, y ) (r cos , r sin ) plane, it can be represented by a set of (r, α))
(Polar coordinates: for every point on the xy-
1 0 0 x x
If v is ( x, y, z ), Av 0 1 0 y y
0 0 0 z 0
6.18
Keywords in Section 6.1:
function: 函數
domain: 定義域
codomain: 對應域
image of v under T: 在T映射下v的像
range of T: T的值域
preimage of w: w的反像
linear transformation: 線性轉換
linear operator: 線性運算子
zero transformation: 零轉換
identity transformation: 相等轉換
6.19
6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
Kernel of a linear transformation T (線性轉換T的核空間):
Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then the set of
all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v ) 0 is called the kernel
of T and is denoted by ker(T)
ker(T ) {v | T ( v) 0, v V }
6.20
Ex 1: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation
T ( A) AT (T : M 32 M 23 )
Sol:
0 0
ker(T ) 0 0
0 0
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (0,0)
x1
1 1 2 0
1 2 x2
3 0
x3
6.22
1 1 2 0 G.-J. E. 1 0 1 0
1 2 3 0 0 1 1 0
x1 t 1
x2 t t 1
x3 t 1
6.23
Theorem 6.3: The kernel is a subspace of V
The kernel of a linear transformation T : V W is a
subspace of the domain V
Pf:
T (0) 0 (by Theorem 6.1) ker(T ) is a nonempty subset of V
Let u and v be vectors in the kernel of T . Then
T (u v) T (u) T ( v) 0 0 0 (u ker(T ), v ker(T ) u v ker(T ))
T is a linear transformation
T (cu) cT (u) c0 0 (u ker(T ) cu ker(T ))
6.24
Ex 6: Finding a basis for the kernel
Let T : R 5 R 4 be defined by T (x) Ax, where x is in R 5 and
1 2 1 1
0
2 1 1 0
3
A
1 0 2 0 1
0 0 0 2 8
6.25
A 0
1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0
2 1 3 1 0 0 G.-J. E. 0 1 1 0 2 0
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 0
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
s t
x1 2s t 2 1
x s 2t 1 2
2
x x3 s s 1 t 0
x4 4t 0 4
x5 t 0 1
6.27
Range of a linear transformation T (線性轉換T的值域):
Let T : V W be a linear tra nsformatio n. Then the set of all
vectors w in W that are images of any vector s in V is called the
range of T and is denoted by range (T )
range (T ) {T ( v) | v V }
6.30
Corollary to Theorem 6.4:
Let T : R n R m be the linear tra nsformatio n given by T (x) Ax.
The range of T is equal to the column space of A, i.e. range (T ) CS ( A)
(1) According to the definition of the range of T(x) = Ax, we know that the
range of T consists of all vectors b satisfying Ax=b, which is equivalent to
find all vectors b such that the system Ax=b is consistent
(2) Ax=b can be rewritten as
a11 a12 a1n
a a a
Ax x1 21 x2 22 xn 2 n b
am1 am 2 amn
Therefore, the system Ax=b is consistent iff we can find (x1, x2,…, xn)
such that b is a linear combination of the column vectors of A, i.e. b CS ( A)
Thus, we can conclude that the range consists of all vectors b, which is a linear
combination of the column vectors of A or said b CS ( A) . So, the column space
of the matrix A is the same as the range of T, i.e. range(T) = CS(A) 6.31
Use our example to illustrate the corollary to Theorem 6.4:
※ For the orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-
plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
※ According to the above analysis, we already knew that the range
of T is the xy-plane, i.e. range(T)={(x, y, 0)| x and y are real
numbers}
※ T can be defined by a matrix A as follows
1 0 0 1 0 0 x x
A 0 1 0 , such that 0 1 0 y y
0 0 0 0 0 0 z 0
※ The column space of A is as follows, which is just the xy-plane
1 0 0 x1
CS ( A) x1 0 x2 1 x3 0 x2 , where x1 , x2 R
0 0 0 0 6.32
Ex 7: Finding a basis for the range of a linear transformation
Let T : R5 R 4 be defined by T (x) Ax, where x is R 5 and
1 2 1 1
0
2 1 3 1 0
A
1 0 2 0 1
0 0 0 2 8
6.33
1 2 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1
2 1 3 1 0 G.-J. E. 0 1 1 0 2
A B
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5
Note:
If T : R n R m is a linear transformation given by T (x) Ax, then
rank(T ) dim(range(T )) dim(CS ( A)) rank( A)
nullity(T ) dim(ker(T )) dim( NS ( A)) nullity( A)
※ The dimension of the row (or column) space of a matrix A is called the rank of A
※ The dimension of the nullspace of A ( NS ( A) {x | Ax 0}) is called the nullity
of A 6.35
Theorem 6.5: Sum of rank and nullity
Let T: V →W be a linear transformation from an n-dimensional
vector space V (i.e. the dim(domain of T) is n) into a vector
space W. Then
rank(T ) nullity(T ) n
(i.e. dim(range of T ) dim(kernel of T ) dim(domain of T ))
6.37
Ex 8: Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation
Find the rank and nullity of the linear tra nsformatio n T : R 3 R 3
define by
1 0 2
A 0 1 1
0 0 0
Sol:
rank (T ) rank ( A) 2
nullity (T ) dim( domain of T ) rank (T ) 3 2 1
※ The rank is determined by the number of leading 1’s, and the
nullity by the number of free variables (columns without leading
1’s)
6.38
Ex 9: Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation
Let T : R5 R 7 be a linear transformation
(a) Find the dimension of the kernel of T if the dimension
of the range of T is 2
(b) Find the rank of T if the nullity of T is 4
(c) Find the rank of T if ker(T ) {0}
Sol:
(a) dim(domain of T ) n 5
dim(kernel of T ) n dim(range of T ) 5 2 3
(b) rank(T ) n nullity(T ) 5 4 1
(c) rank(T ) n nullity(T ) 5 0 5
6.39
One-to-one (一對一):
A function T : V W is called one-to-one if the preimage of
every w in the range consists of a single vector. This is equivalent
to saying that T is one-to-one iff for all u and v in V , T (u) T ( v)
implies that u v
Pf:
() Suppose T is one-to-one
Due to the fact
Then T ( v) 0 can have only one solution : v 0 that T(0) = 0 in
Thm. 6.1
i.e. ker(T ) {0}
6.42
Onto (映成):
A function T : V W is said to be onto if every element
in W has a preimage in V
(T is onto W when W is equal to the range of T)
dim(domain rank(T)
T:Rn→Rm nullity(T) 1-1 onto
of T) (1) (2)
(a) T:R3→R3 3 3 0 Yes Yes
(b) T:R2→R3 2 2 0 Yes No
(c) T:R3→R2 3 2 1 No Yes
(d) T:R3→R3 3 2 1 No No 6.45
Isomorphism (同構):
A linear tra nsformatio n T : V W that is one to one and onto
is called an isomorphis m. Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces
such that there exists an isomorphis m from V to W , then V and W
are said to be isomorphic to each other
Theorem 6.9: Isomorphic spaces (同構空間) and dimension
Two finite-dimensional vector space V and W are isomorphic
if and only if they are of the same dimension
Pf:
() Assume that V is isomorphic to W , where V has dimension n
There exists a L.T. T : V W that is one to one and onto
T is one-to-one
dim(ker( T )) 0 dim(V) = n
6.47
Since B ' is a basis for V, {w1, w2,…wn} is linearly
independent, and the only solution for w=0 is c1=c2=…=cn=0
So with w=0, the corresponding v is 0, i.e., ker(T) = {0}
T is one - to - one
By Theorem 6.5, we can derive that dim(range of T) =
dim(domain of T) – dim(ker(T)) = n –0 = n = dim(W)
T is onto
6.48
Note
Theorem 6.9 tells us that every vector space with dimension
n is isomorphic to Rn
6.50
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
Two representations of the linear transformation T:R3→R3 :
2 1 1 x1
(2) T (x) Ax 1 3 2 x2
0 3 4 x3
Three reasons for matrix representation of a linear transformation:
It is simpler to write
It is simpler to read
It is more easily adapted for computer use
6.51
Theorem 6.10: Standard matrix for a linear transformation
Let T : R n R m be a linear trtansformation such that
a11 a12 a1n
a a a
T (e1 ) 21 , T (e2 ) 22 , , T (en ) 2 n ,
m1
a am 2 amn
where {e1 , e2 , , en } is a standard basis for R n . Then the m n
matrix whose n columns correspond to T (ei ),
a11 a12 a1n
a a22 a2 n
A T (e1 ) T (e2 ) T (e n ) 21 ,
am1 am 2 amn
is such that T ( v) Av for every v in R n , A is called the
standard matrix for T (T的標準矩陣) 6.52
Pf:
v1 1 0 0
v 0 1 0
v 2 v1 v2 vn v1e1 v2e2 vnen
n
v
0 0 1
T is a linear transformation T ( v) T (v1e1 v2e2 vnen )
T (v1e1 ) T (v2e2 ) T (vnen )
v1T (e1 ) v2T (e2 ) vnT (en )
0
2
T (e2 ) T (0, 1, 0) (2, 1) T (e2 ) T ( 1 )
0 1
0
0
T (e3 ) T (0, 0, 1) (0, 0) T (e3 ) T ( 0 )
1 0
6.55
A T (e1 ) T (e2 ) T (e3 )
1 2 0
2 1 0
Check:
x x
1 2 0 x 2 y
A y y
2 1 0 2 x y
z z
i.e., T ( x, y, z ) ( x 2 y, 2 x y )
6.57
Composition of T1:Rn→Rm with T2:Rm→Rp :
T ( v) T2 (T1 ( v)), v R n
This composition is denoted by T T2 T1
6.59
Ex 3: The standard matrix of a composition
Let T1 and T2 be linear transformations from R 3 into R 3 s.t.
T1 ( x, y, z) (2x y, 0, x z)
T2 ( x, y, z) ( x y, z, y)
Find the standard matrices for the compositions T T2 T1
and T ' T1 T2
Sol:
2 1 0
A1 0 0 0 (standard matrix for T1 )
1 0 1
1 1 0
A2 0 0 1 (standard matrix for T2 )
0 1 0 6.60
The standard matrix for T T2 T1
1 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
A A2 A1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
The standard matrix for T ' T1 T2
2 1 0 1 1 0 2 2 1
A' A1 A2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
6.61
Inverse linear transformation (反線性轉換):
Note:
If the transformation T is invertible, then the inverse is
unique and denoted by T–1
6.62
Theorem 6.12: Existence of an inverse transformation
Let T : R n R n be a linear transformation with standard matrix A,
Then the following condition are equivalent
※ For (2) (1), you can imagine that
(1) T is invertible since T is one-to-one and onto, for every
(2) T is an isomorphism w in the codomain of T, there is only one
preimage v, which implies that T-1(w) =v
(3) A is invertible can be a L.T. and well-defined, so we can
infer that T is invertible
※ On the contrary, if there are many
preimages for each w, it is impossible to
find a L.T to represent T-1 (because for a
L.T, there is always one input and one
Note: output), so T cannot be invertible
If T is invertible with standard matrix A, then the standard
matrix for T–1 is A–1 6.63
Ex 4: Finding the inverse of a linear transformation
The linear transformation T : R3 R3 is defined by
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (2 x1 3x2 x3 , 3x1 3x2 x3 , 2 x1 4 x2 x3 )
Show that T is invertible, and find its inverse
Sol:
The standard matrix for T
2 3 1 2 x1 3x2 x3
A 3 3 1 3 x1 3x2 x3
2 4 1 2 x1 4 x2 x3
2 3 1 1 0 0
A I 3 3 3 1 0 1 0
2 4 1 0 0 1 6.64
1 0 0 1 1 0
G.-J. E.
0 1 0 1 0 1 I A1
0 0 1 6 2 3
Therefore T is invertible and the standard matrix for T 1 is A1
1 1 0
A1 1 0 1
6 2 3
1 1 0 x1 x1 x2
T 1 ( v) A1v 1 0 1 x2 x1 x3
6 2 3 3 1
x 6 x 2 x2 3 x3
In other word s,
T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ( x1 x2 , x1 x3 , 6 x1 2 x2 3x3 )
※ Check T-1(T(2, 3, 4)) = T-1(17, 19, 20) = (2, 3, 4) 6.65
The matrix of T relative to the bases B and B‘:
T :V W (a linear transformation)
B {v1 , v 2 , , vn} (a nonstandard basis for V )
The coordinate matrix of any v relative to B is denoted by [v]B
c1
c
if v can be represeted as c v c v cn v n , then [v]B 2
1 1 2 2
cn
A matrix A can represent T if the result of A multiplied by a
coordinate matrix of v relative to B is a coordinate matrix of v
relative to B’, where B’ is a basis for W. That is,
T (v)B ' A[v]B ,
where A is called the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B’ (T對
應於基底B到B'的矩陣)
6.66
Transformation matrix for nonstandard bases (the
generalization of Theorem 6.10, in which standard bases are
considered) :
Let V and W be finite - dimensional vector spaces with bases B and B ',
respectively, where B {v1 , v 2 , , v n }
6.68
Ex 5: Finding a matrix relative to nonstandard bases
Let T : R2 R 2 be a linear transformation defined by
T ( x1 , x2 ) ( x1 x2 , 2x1 x2 )
Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B {(1, 2), (1, 1)}
and B ' {(1, 0), (0, 1)}
Sol:
T (1, 2) (3, 0) 3(1, 0) 0(0, 1)
T (1, 1) (0, 3) 0(1, 0) 3(0, 1)
Check:
T (2, 1) (2 1, 2(2) 1) (3, 3)
6.70
Notes:
(1) In the special case where V W (i.e., T : V V ) and B B ',
the matrix A is called the matrix of T relative to the basis B
(T 對應於基底B的矩陣)
6.71
Keywords in Section 6.3:
standard matrix for T: T 的標準矩陣
composition of linear transformations: 線性轉換的合成
inverse linear transformation: 反線性轉換
matrix of T relative to the bases B and B' : T對應於基底B到
B'的矩陣
matrix of T relative to the basis B: T對應於基底B的矩陣
6.72
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
T :V V ( a linear transformation)
B {v1 , v 2 , , vn} ( a basis of V )
B ' {w1 , w 2 , , w n } (a basis of V )
direct 6.74
Ex 1: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
Find the matrix A' for T:R 2 R 2
T ( x1, x2 ) (2x1 2x2 , x1 3x2 )
reletive to the basis B' {(1, 0), (1, 1)}
Sol:
(1) A ' T (1, 0) B ' T (1, 1) B '
3
T (1, 0) (2, 1) 3(1, 0) 1(1, 1) T (1, 0)B '
1
2
T (1, 1) (0, 2) 2(1, 0) 2(1, 1) T (1, 1)B '
2
3 2
A' T (1, 0)B ' T (1, 1)B '
1 2
6.75
(2) standard matrix for T (matrix of T relative to B {(1, 0), (0, 1)})
2 2
A T (1, 0) T (0, 1)
1 3
transition matrix from B' to B
※ Solve a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) = (1, 0)
1 1
P (1, 0)B (1, 1)B
(a, b) = (1, 0)
※ Solve c(1, 0) + d(0, 1) = (1, 1)
0 1 (c, d) = (1, 1)
transition matrix from B to B '
1 1 ※ Solve a(1, 0) + b(1, 1) = (1, 0)
P (1, 0)B ' (0, 1) B '
1
(a, b) = (1, 0)
※ Solve c(1, 0) + d(1, 1) = (0, 1)
0 1 (c, d) = (-1, 1)
matrix of T relative B'
1 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 2
A' P AP
0 1 1 3 0 1 1 2
6.76
Ex 2: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
Let B {( 3, 2), (4, 2)} and B ' {( 1, 2), (2, 2)} be basis for
2 7
R , and let A
2
be the matrix for T : R 2
R 2
relative to B.
3 7
Find the matrix of T relative to B '
Sol:
Because the specific function is unknown, it is difficult to apply
the direct method to derive A’, so we resort to the indirect
method where A’ = P-1AP
3 2
transition matrix from B' to B : P (1, 2)B (2, 2)B
2 1
1 2
transition matrix from B to B': P (3, 2)B ' (4, 2)B '
1
2 3
matrix of T relative to B':
1 1 2 2 7 3 2 2 1
A' P AP
2 3 3 7 2 1 1 3 6.77
Ex 3: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
For the linear transformation T : R 2 R 2 given in Ex.2, find v B ,
T ( v)B , and T ( v)B ' , for the vector v whose coordinate matrix is
3
v B '
Sol: 1
3 2 3 7
vB PvB ' 2 1 1 5
2 7 7 21
T ( v)B AvB 3 7 5 14
1 2 21 7
T ( v)B ' P T ( v)B 2 3 14 0
1
2 1 3 7
or T ( v)B ' A' v B '
1 3 1 0 6.78
Similar matrix (相似矩陣):
For square matrices A and A’ of order n, A’ is said to be
similar to A if there exist an invertible matrix P s.t. A’=P-1AP
Theorem 6.13: (Properties of similar matrices)
Let A, B, and C be square matrices of order n.
Then the following properties are true.
(1) A is similar to A
(2) If A is similar to B, then B is similar to A
(3) If A is similar to B and B is similar to C, then A is similar to C
Pf for (1) and (2) (the proof of (3) is left in Exercise 23):
(1) A I n AI n (the transition matrix from A to A is the I n )
(2) A P 1BP PAP 1 P( P 1BP) P 1 PAP 1 B
Q1 AQ B (by defining Q P 1 ), thus B is similar to A
6.79
Ex 4: (Similar matrices)
2 2 3 2
(a) A and A ' are similar
1 3 1 2
1 1 1
because A' P AP, where P
0 1
2 7 2 1
(b) A and A ' are similar
3 7 1 3
1 3 2
because A' P AP, where P
2 1
6.80
Ex 5: (A comparison of two matrices for a linear transformation)
1 3 0
Suppose A 3 1 0 is the matrix for T : R 3 R 3 relative
0 0 2
to the standard basis. Find the matrix for T relative to the basis
B ' {(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Sol:
The transitio n matrix from B' to the standard matrix
1 1 0
P (1, 1, 0)B (1, 1, 0)B (0, 0, 1)B 1 1 0
0 0 1
12 12 0
P 1 12 12 0
0 0 1 6.81
matrix of T relative to B ' :
12 12 0 1 3 0 1 1 0
A ' P 1 AP 12 12 0 3 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 1
4 0 0
(A’ is a diagonal matrix, which is
0 2 0 simple and with some
0 0 2 computational advantages)
0 0 dn
d1k 0 0
k
(1) D
k 0 d 2 0 (2) DT D
k
0 0 d n
d11 0 0
0
1
0
(3) D 1 , di 0
d 2
0 0 1
dn 6.83
Keywords in Section 6.4:
matrix of T relative to B: T 相對於B的矩陣
matrix of T relative to B' : T 相對於B'的矩陣
transition matrix from B' to B : 從B'到B的轉移矩陣
transition matrix from B to B' : 從B到B'的轉移矩陣
similar matrix: 相似矩陣
6.84
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformation
The geometry of linear transformation in the plane (p.407-p.110)
Reflection in x-axis, y-axis, and y=x
Horizontal and vertical expansion and contraction
Horizontal and vertical shear
Computer graphics (to produce any desired angle of view of a 3-
D figure)
6.85