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MERP 4423
DEFINITION
Refrigeration
is a branch of science that deals with the process of
reducing and maintaining the temperature of a space
or material below the temperature of the
surroundings.
is used to describe thermal systems that maintain
process space or material at a temperature less than
available from ambient conditions.
DEFINITION
Condensers
are highpressure vapor heat exchangers.
Evaporators
are lowpressure vapor heat exchangers.
Expansion valves or capillaries
are throttling devices that transport refrigerant from
highpressure condition (condenser) to lowpressure
condition (evaporator).
Compressors
are pressureraising devices.
DEFINITION
JouleThomson Effect
is expansion of liquid into mixture of liquid and vapor
at constant enthalpy.
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
is defined as refrigerant effect divided by network
input, where the refrigerant effect is the absolute
value of the heat transferred from the lower
temperature source, and the network input is the
absolute value of the heat transferred to the higher
temperature sink minus this refrigerant effect.
DEFINITION
COP
is also defined as the ratio calculated by dividing the
total heating capacity in Btu/hr provided by the
refrigeration system, including fan heat, but
excluding supplementary resistance, by the total
electric input in watts times 3.412. This definition
applies primarily to heat pumps.
DEFINITION
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
is a ratio calculated by dividing the cooling capacity
in Btu/hr by the power input in watts and any set of
rating conditions, expressed in Btu/Watthr.
EER
is also defined as the amount of heat removed from
the cooled space in Btu for one Watthour of
electricity consumed.
DEFINITION
EER could be expressed in terms of COP with
the following equation: , where 1 Watt = 3.412
Btu/hr.
where 1 Watt = 3.412 Btu/hr.
DEFINITION
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER)
is the anticipated performance of a refrigerating
device over an average season, used primarily for
residential and commercial air conditioning; it also
expressed in Btu/kWhr.
Heating Season Performance Factor (HSPF)
is the anticipated performance of a heat pump device
during heating season, primarily used for residential
and commercial heat pump; expressed in Btu/kWhr.
DEFINITION
Reversed Cycle
is a system that receives heat from a colder body and
delivers heat to a hotter body, not in violation of the
Second Law of thermodynamics, but by virtue of
work input.
Refrigeration Cycle
is a reversed cycle whose objective is to extract heat
from the low temperature reservoir.
DEFINITION
Heat pump
is a reversed cycle whose objective is to supply energy
to the high temperature reservoir.
Standard Rating of a refrigeration machine,
using a condensable vapor, is the number of
standard TR it can produce under the following
conditions:
Liquid only enters the expansion valve and vapor
only enters the compressor or the absorber of an
absorption system;
DEFINITION
The liquid entering the expansion valve is subcooled
at 9 oF (5 oC) and the vapor entering the compressor
or absorber is superheated at 9 oF (5 oC), these
temperatures to be measured within 10 ft (3.05 m) of
the compressor cylinder or absorber;
The pressure at the compressor or absorber inlet
corresponds to a saturation temperature of 5 oF (15
o
C);
The pressure at the compressor or absorber outlet
corresponds to a saturation temperature of 86 oF (30
o
C).
DEFINITION
British Unit of Refrigeration
corresponds to a heat absorption rate of 237.6 Btu/min
(4.175 kW) with inlet and outlet pressures corresponding
to saturation temperature of 23 oF (5 oC) and 59 oF (15
oC), respectively.
KW
the unit to specify refrigeration loads, as standard
practice in Europe.
Frigorie
the unit of refrigeration capacity, occasionally used in
Europe. 1 Frigorie = 50 Btu/min = 0.8786 kW; 1 Frigorie
= 0.25 x std TR.
METHOD OF REFRIGERATION
Ice Refrigeration
Mechanical Refrigeration
Absorption Refrigeration
Steam Jet Refrigeration
Air Cycle Refrigeration
APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION
Food preservation
Ice making
Air conditioning for summer comfort
Industrial Applications
Ex.: Making “cold rubber”, to improve wearing
quality
Oil refinery processes
Treatment of steel
Manufacture of chemicals
Cryogenics – very low temperature refrigeration
Heat pump – heating the building
UNITS AND CONSTANT
Units of Force
1 kgf = 9.8066 N 1 lbf = 4.4484 N lbf =
0.4536 kgf
Units of Pressure
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 Atm = 101.325 kPa 1 Bar =
100 kPa 1 Atm = 1.033 kgf /cm2
1 psi = 6895 Pa 1 Atm = 14.699 psi
UNITS AND CONSTANT
Units of Energy and Work
1 Joule = 1 Nm 1 Cal. = 4.187 J
1 Btu = 252 Cal = 1055 Joules
Units of Power
1 Watt = 1 J/s 1 Hp = 0.746 kW = 42,4 Btu/min
Gas Constant
Air, R = 0.28708 kJ/kgoK
Water, R = 0.4615 kJ/kgoK
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION CAPACITY
Ton of Refrigeration (TR)
is the rate of cooling required to freeze one ton of
water at 32 oF into ice at 32 oF in one day.
1 TR = (2000 lb) (144 Btu/lb) / (24 hr) = 12000
Btu/lb = 200 Btu/min
1 TR = (12000 Btu/lb) (252 Cal/Btu) = 3024
kCal/Hr = 50.4 kCal/min
1 TR = (200 Btu/min) (1055 J/Btu) = 211 kJ/min
= 3.516 kW
PROPERTIES OF WATER
Liquid water
Cp = 4.187 kJ/kgoK = 1.0 Btu/lboR
Ice water
Cpi = 2.0935 kJ/kgoK = 0.5 Btu/lboR
Latent heat of evaporation
hfg = 2257 kJ/kg = 970.3 Btu/lb
Latent heat of fusion of ice
hi = 335 kJ/kg = 144 Btu/lb
STANDARD REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Evaporation temperature
5 oF = 15 oC
Condensing temperature
86 oF = 30 oC
ICE REFRIGERATION
t1 tf = 0 oC t2
The most efficient heat engine cycle is the
Carnot Cycle, consisting of two isothermal
processes and two adiabatic processes.
The Carnot Cycle can be thought of as the most
efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical
law.
CARNOT CYCLE
When the second law of thermodynamics states that
not all the supplied heat in a heat engine can be used
to do Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the
fraction of the heat which can be so used.
In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the
processes involved in the heat engine cycle must be
reversible and involve no change in entropy. This
means that the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since
no real engine processes are reversible and all real
physical processes involve some increase in entropy.
CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot power cycle
consists of the reversible
processes:
Process AB :
Isothermal expansion,
Ta = Tb
Process BC :
Isentropic expansion, Sb=Sc
Process CD:
Isothermal compression, Tc =
Td
Process DA :
Isentropic compression,
Sd=Sa
The amount of energy transferred as work is
The total amount of thermal energy transferred
between the hot reservoir and the system will be
and the total amount of thermal energy transferred
between the system and the cold reservoir will be
The efficiency is defined to be:
is the work done by the system (energy exiting
the system as work),
is the heat put into the system (heat energy
entering the system),
is the absolute temperature of the cold
reservoir, and
is the absolute temperature of the hot reservoir.
is the maximum system entropy
is the minimum system entropy
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE/ENGINE OR
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
QR
High-temperature
Reservoir, TH
Condenser
QH
Expansion Valve W
Reversed
W
Engine
Evaporator
Compressor
QL
QA
Low-temperature
Reservoir, TL
Processes
T
1 – 2: Adiabatic or
Isentropic Compression 3 TH 2
Process (S = C)
2 – 3: Isothermal Heat
Rejection Process (TH =
C) TL
3 – 4: Adiabatic or s4 = s3 s2 = s11 s
Isentropic Expansion
Process (S = C)
4 – 1: isothermal Heat
Addition Process (TL =
C)
Heat Input to the Reversed Engine,
W = QH – QL
Coefficient of Performance (Refrigerator), COPR
Q
COPR L
QL
1
s1 - s4 TL
TL
W QH - QL
QH
-1 s1 - s4 TH - TL TH - TL
QL
Coefficient of Performance (Heat Pump), COPHP
QH QH s2 - s3 TH TH
COPHP
W QH - QL s2 - s3 TH -Tl TH - TL
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1
A Carnot power cycle operates on 2lb of air between the
limits of 70°F and 500°F. The pressure at the beginning of
isothermal expansion is 400 psia and the end of isothermal
expansion is 185psig. Determine the followings:
(a) The volume at the end of isothermal compression.
(b) ΔS during an isothermal process,
(c) Qa
(d) Qr
(e) W
(f) Efficiency
(g) The ratio of expansion during isothermal heating and the
overall ratio of expansion and
(h) Mean effective pressure
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 2
A Carnot engine operating between 775 K and
305 K produces 54 KJ of work. Determine the
followings:
(a) Qa
(b) ΔS during heat rejection and
(c) efficiency