Introduction to

Computer Architecture
 Computer Architecture and Organization

• Architecture is the design of the computer system.

• Organization is how the architecture is implemented.

Computer Units
Basic Organization of Computer
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• It is the brain of the computer.

• Its function is to decode and execute instructions
• It coordinates the activities of all the other units.

CPU is formed with two following parts:

• Control Unit
• Arithmetic Logic Unit – ALU
• Registers
 Control Unit
● The Control Unit acts like the supervisor
● It directs and coordinates all activities of the computer
system.
● It decodes/understands instructions and then directs the
proper unit of computer system to perform the tasks
(such as, mathematical calculation by the ALU unit or
store data in memory or display data on memory or print
data by the printer).
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
● ALU performs arithmetical ( +, -,*,/ etc. ) and
logical operations ( and , or etc. ).

● The actual processing of the data and instruction

are performed by ALU.
 Registers
• The CPU has registers to temporarily hold data being
acted upon.
• Different architectures have different number of
registers.
• Some registers are available for the user programs to
use directly.
• Some registers are used indirectly (such as the program
counter).
• Some registers are used only by the operating system
(i.e. program status register)
 I/O Controllers
• Direct the flow of data to and from I/O devices.
• CPU sends a request to the I/O controller to
initiate I/O.
• I/O controllers run independently and in parallel
with the CPU.
• I/O controllers may interrupt the CPU upon
completion of request or error.
 Memory Unit
The storage area of a computer is called the Memory Unit.
Two types:
- Primary memory (RAM, ROM)
- Secondary memory (Hard Disk, CD ROM, Flash memory)

The primary memory unit stores or holds the data or instructions

that are to be processed currently. Data or instructions
entered through the input device or read from the secondary
memory are stored in the primary memory (RAM).

The secondary memory stores data or programs permanently.

Memory Hierarchy
 Motherboard Components

(Accelerated Graphics Port)

(Peripheral Component Interconnect)

(Serial Advanced
Technology Attachment)

(Integrated Drive Electronics)

North/Southbridge layout in Motherboard

• The North and Southbridge are two chips in the

core logic chipset on a PC motherboard.
• The Southbridge typically implements the "slower"
capabilities of the motherboard. In Intel chipset
systems, the Southbridge is named Input/Output
Controller Hub (ICH).
• The southbridge is not directly connected to the
CPU. Rather, the northbridge ties the southbridge
to the CPU.
 The CPU and Microprocessor
• The CPU of a computer is sometimes referred as
microprocessor (or simply processor).
• On personal computer (PC), the CPU is housed in
a single Chip, called microprocessor.
• On large machines, the CPU is formed with one or
more chips (microprocessors).
• Referring to a modern computer, there is no
difference at all between a CPU and a processor.
Microcomputer & Microprocessor
 The CPU/Microprocessor

Intel 4004, the first general-purpose, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)

commercial microprocessor. D8086 microprocessor.

Intel Celeron microprocessor. Intel Core i7 microprocessor.

 Microprocessors
• Intel
– Leading manufacturer of processors
– Intel 4004 was worlds first microprocessor
– IBM PC powered by Intel 8086
– Current processors
• Intel Duel Core
• Intel Core 2 Duo
• Intel Core i3,i5, i7
 Microprocessors…
• Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)
– Main competitor to Intel
– Current processors
• Sempron
• Athlon FX 64
• Athlon XP
 Microprocessors…
• Freescale
– A subsidiary of Motorola
– Co-developed the Apple G4 PowerPC
 Microprocessors…
• IBM
– Historically manufactured mainframes
– Partnered with Apple to develop G5
• First consumer 64 bit chip
 Special Purpose Microprocessors
• Used for specific applications or to enhance the
performance of the main processor.
• A coprocessor is a special purpose
microprocessors.
• For example: Intel 8087 is a math-coprocessor
that performs mathematical computations,
particularly floating-point operations.
 Advanced Processors
• RISC processors
– Reduced Instructions Set Computing
– Smaller instruction sets
– Performs complex tasks
– Can process data faster

Example: IMB/Apple/Motorola PowerPC, DEC Alpha

 Advanced Processors
• CISC processors
– Complex Instruction Set Computing
– Larger instruction sets
– Performance is lower than RISC processors

Example: Intel 8086, Pentium, AMD K6, Cyrix

 Comparing Processors
• Speed of processor
• Size of cache
• Number of registers (temporary memory)
• Bit size
• Speed of bus
 Computer Buses

• A bus is a set of wires that connects the CPU to

memory, disk and I/O devices.
• A communication pathway connecting two or
more devices of the computer system.
• The size of the bus is the number of wires in the
bus. Each wire can transmit a single bit.
 Computer Buses…
• There are usually 3 kinds of busses that connect the CPU to
memory and I/O devices:
►Data Bus
►Address Bus
►Control Bus
• The data bus carries the data to write or read to or from
memory.
• The address bus carries the information (address) or location in
memory that the CPU will read data from or write data to.
• The control bus carries commands from the CPU to the
devices and returns status signals from the devices indicating
whether the operation is a read or a write and ensuring that the
operation happens at the right time.
Computer Buses

Figure: Computer Buses.

 Bus Width

• Bus width is the key determinant of performance.

• Bus width is the size of the bus - how many bits
can carries.
• 8, 16, 32, 64 bit data bus can carries 8/16/32/64
bits per cycle.
• Width of the address bus determines maximum
memory capacity of system. e.g. 8080 has 16 bit
address bus giving 64k address space.
 Bus Speed

• The speed of the bus refers to how fast you can

change the data on the bus, and still have
devices be able to read the values correctly.
• The speed can be measured in say, MHz, that is
up to 106 changes per second.
• Bus speed can limit how fast a CPU can
communicate with memory. The size of a bus can
also limit the speed too.
 Other Buses
– A number of buses are in widespread use in
the computer world.
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) (modern PCs)
• FireWire (consumer electronics)
• PCI bus (Many PCs)
• Multibus (8086)
• IBM PC (PC/XT)
• ISA bus (PC/AT)
• EISA bus (80386)
• Microchannel (PS/2)
• Nubus (macintosh)
 Instruction Cycle
Computer performs its operations in three steps:
Fetch: Retrieve the instruction from main memory.
Decode: Decode or understand the instruction.
Execute: Perform the action/operation.

This cycle is called fetch-execution cycle, shown bellow.