Ophthalmic Optical Instruments I

Telescopes and Microscopes

C. I. OPHTMALMOMETER, CHICAGO ILLINOIS ca 1899

TELESCOPES
 Astronomical (Keplerian) Telescope
Image is Inverted

objective
eyepiece

Fe Fo

fe

fo

Virtual image fo
at 25 cm
M=-
fe
 Astronomical Telescope

objective
eyepiece
Fe Fo

fe

fo
Virtual image
at infinity

D
 Galilean Telescope
plus
lens
fp

fp
negative
lens

fp’s fp
coincide

final
telescope
parallel rays
MAGNIFICATION OF GALILEAN TELESCOPE
objective
eyepiece

fep
fobj
Example:
fobj fobj = 50.0 mm
M= fep
fep = - 5.0 mm
50.0
M= = 10.0
- 5.0 GTT 04
 Viewing Through a Galilean Telescope

parallel
rays iImage
object

emmetropic
eye

UPRIGHT OBJECT APPEARS UPRIGHT

GTT 04
D
MICROSCOPES
 ANGULAR MAGNIFICATION
Apparent size of object depends on angle it subtends at eye.

 100 m

1 00 m

 10 m

10 m
 ANGULAR MAGNIFICATION

On average, an object cannot be closer than

25 cm from the eye to be seen clearly.

25 cm
Average distance of
most distinct vision
 
h h
t a n   
f 25
25 cm

’ v ir tu a l im a g e

h
t a n  ’   h
f f
25 cm

h
ta n  ’ f 2 5 cm
A n g u la r M a g n if ic a tio n = = =
ta n  h f (cm)
25
 Eye

BASIC
MICROSCOPE
magnifier
Eyepiece

Real image
f eyepiece

real image
magnification
Objective

fobjective
Object
MICROSCOPE
MAGNIFICATION

25
M2 =
f

Im Im X 25
M1 = Mtotal= Ob f
Ob
 OBJECTIVES
Numerical Aperture (NA)
Light gathering ability Resolution

NA = n sin
EXAMPLE
D  = 14

n n = 1.00 (air)
w.d.
 NA = 1.00 x sin(14 )
NA = 0.24
 OBJECTIVES
N.A. Examples

 = 28  = 35  = 60
n = 1 .0 0 n = 1 .0 0 n = 1 .5 2 ( o il)
N A = 0 .4 6 N A = 0 .5 7 N A = 1 .3 2
 EYEPIECES
Huygens (OCULARS) Ramsden

parallel rays from

eyepiece
Real image

Real image converging

rays from
objective D
 REAL MICROSCOPE

Real image

Objective

Specimen
 EXPERIMENT 4
Basic Microscope

iris
real image diaphragm
on card onion skin

Produce real image of onion skin on card.

Mark distance of real image on base.
 EXPERIMENT 4--CONTINUED
View real image with magnifier (“eyepiece”)
real
image
plane

Adjust iris diaphragm. How does image change?

25
What is the total magnification? M = Im X
total Ob f
Slit-lamp Biomicroscope
The slit-lamp
biomicroscope
begins with a
microscope…. Eyepiece

Objective

Specimen
….turned on its side

….change specimen, objective & eyepiece

objective Huygens
subject eyepiece

image
plane

…….fundamental slit-lamp biomicroscope

Build in magnification change without changing
working distance

working
distance
fobj

Galilean no image in
telescope to image plane
change mag
Build in magnification change without changing
working distance

working
distance
fobj

Galilean no image in
telescope to image plane
change mag D
…..add lens to form image in eyepiece
image plane

astronomical
telescope

D
 Porro* prism

2 right-angle prisms
F 1800 image rotation
displace image
horizontally
reduce length of
telescope

F Porro -Abbe

*
Ignazio Porro. 1801 – 1875.
Italian optical instrument maker
Slit-lamp with folded optical path

D
D
binocular slit-lamp viewing system
Operating Microscope
Operating microscope optics are
very similar to those of the slit-lamp.
 binocular
astronomical
Change telescopes
magnification
without magnification change:
changing Galilean telescopes
working
distance prism

objective lens
 Specular Microscope

specular == “mirror-like”

Useful in seeing corneal endothelial cells

Endothelial cells posterior surfaces flat &
adjacent to aqueous

Difference in index of refraction gives

specular reflection
 Specular Microscope

halogen lamp

condenser

slit
dipping
cone lens
M

objective Ramsden film

eyepiece or
CCD
D
endothelium

slit image {

specular reflections and stray light

Typical image of endothelium
from specular microscope
 Confocal Principle
Red cell in thick sample Pinhole in image plane passes
imaged by lens all light from blue cell

Blue cell, nearer to surface, Pinhole blocks most of light

imaged at different point from red cell

Based on Webb, RH, Rep Prog Phys

 Confocal Principle

Point source CONFOCAL with

blue cell & pinhole selectively
illuminates blue cell

Confocal point source gives

less light to red cell, and most is
blocked by pinhole

Beam splitter makes confocal

microscope epitaxial

Based on Webb, RH, Rep Prog Phys 59:427

 Confocal Optical Systems:

Pinhole allows light

from small volume in
sample. Other stray
light blocked.

Confocal point source

confines light to small
volume in sample.

Rejects stray light

Allows Z-axis “sectioning”
Confocal systems can improve imaging

Standard specular Confocal specular

microscope microscope
Koester’s confocal microscope
 CCD camera
lamp M
M

slit confocal
slit
rotating
mirror

Koester’s
Confocal
objective
scanning
microscope
specimen
 Other Scanning Methods and
Confocal Microscopes

Tandem Scanning Confocal Microscope

Scanned (laser) Spot Confocal Microscope

Scanned Slit Confocal Microscope
 Tandem Scanning Confocal Microscope

Uses Nipkow disk

Paul Nipkow (1860 -1940)
Studied with Helmholtz r
Invented disk in 1883
Used for telegraphing pictures
Later used in 1st television

Sets of holes in plate

Holes on Archimedes spirals
r = a + b
D
 Very light
Petran inefficient

Tandem
Confocal
Scanning
Microscope
TCSM for imaging cornea
X-Y mirror
confocal
laser
scanning
Confocal slit
scanning
 3-D reconstruction from confocal
images

fiber from subepithelial

Guthoff et al. Cornea 24:608
 Commercial Confocal Scanning Corneal
Microscopes

Heidelberg HRT
Nidek II*-Rostock Topcon SP-
Confoscan attachment 2000p

*also scans retina