RADIOBIOLOGY

AND RADIATION
PROTECTION
Richard David G. Rebollado,RRT
RADIOBIOLOGY
Radiobiology is the study of
the effects of ionizing
radiation on biologic tissue.
MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
 1. Water
 2. Proteins
 3. Lipids
 4. Carbohydrates(saccharides, watered carbon,
hydrated carbon)
 5. Nucleic Acid
WATER
The most abundant molecular
constituent of the body is water
It consist of two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen and
constitutes approximately 80% of
human substance.
PROTEINS
 Long-chain macromolecules
 There are 22 amino acids used in protein production or protein
synthesis
 Provide structure and support
 It functions as:
 1. enzyme- necessary in small quantities to allow a
biochemical reaction
 2. hormones- exercise regulatory control over some body
functions
 3. antibody- constitute a primary defense mechanism of the
body against infection and disease
LIPIDS
 Composed of two kinds of smaller molecules- 1
glycerol and 3 fatty acids
 Present in all tissues of the body
 Structural components of cell membrane
 Often are concentrated just under the skin
 Serve as the thermal insulator
 Serve as fuel for the body providing energy
storage
CARBOHYDRATES
 Also called saccharides
 Chief function of the carbohydrates in the body is to
provide fuel for cell metabolism
 Glucose is the ultimate molecule that fuels the body
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 DNA- serves as the command or control molecule
for cell function
 Contains all the hereditary information
 RNA- is found in the nucleus and outside the nucleus
in the cytoplasm
Protein synthesis- is good example of a
most important and critical cellular
function necessary for survival
Cell proliferation- is the act of single cell
or group of cells reproducing and
multiplying in number
Cell division- mechanism that results in
twice the number of cells
Genetic cells- are the oogonium
of the female and the
spermatogonium of the male
When somatic cells undergo
proliferation or cell division, they
undergo mitosis
Genetic cells undergo meiosis
Radiosensitivity Cell Type
High Lymphocytes
Spermatogonia
Erythroblast
Intestinal crypt cells

Intermediate Endothelial cells

Osteoblasts
Spermatids
Fibroblast

Low Muscle
Nerve
LAW OF BERGONIE AND
TRIBONDEAU
Radiosensitivity was a function of the metabolic state of the

tissue being irradiated
 The law states that the radiosensitivity of living tissue varies
with maturation and metabolism.
 1. stem cells are radiosensitive; mature cells are
radioresistant.
 2. younger tissues and organs are radiosensitive.
 3. Tissue with high metabolic activity are radiosensitive.
 4. A high proliferation rate for cells and a high growth rate for
tissues result in increased radiosensitivity
PHYSICAL FACTORS
AFFECTING
RADIOSENSITIVITY
 Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
Is a measure of the rate at which energy is
transferred from ionizing radiation to soft tissue.
LET is expressed in units of kiloelectron volt of
energy transferred per micrometer of track length in
soft tissue. (keV/um).
The LET of diagnostic x-rays is approximately 3
keV/um
 Relative Biologic Effectiveness
 As the LET of radiation increases, the ability to produce
biologic damage also increases
 Diagnostic x-ray have an RBE of 1
 Radiation with lower LET than diagnostic x-ray have an RBE
less than 1
 Radiation with higher LET have a higher RBE

 Fractionation and Protraction

 If the dose of radiation is delivered over a long period of time-
the effect of that dose is less
 If the dose is delivered continuously but at a lower dose rate, it
is said to be protracted
 Dose fractionation causes less effect because tissue repair
and recovery occur between doses.
BIOLOGIC FACTORS
AFFECTING
RADIOSENSITIVITY
1. Oxygen Effect
2. Age
3. Recovery
4. Chemical Agents
5. Hormesis
RADIATION DOSE RESPONSE
RELATIONSHIP
Is the mathematical relationship
between different radiation doses and
the magnitude of the observed dose.
LINEAR NON THRESHOLD
 Any dose regardless of its size is expected to
produce a response
NON LINEAR THRESHOLD
 In nonlinear dose-response relationship, varied
doses produce varied responses.
 At doses below threshold dose, no response is
measured.
STAGES OF RADIOLYSIS OF
WATER
 Initial Physical Stage- ionization occurs
 Physico-Chemical Stage- dissociation of ions and
formation of free radicals
 Chemical Stage- interaction of free radicals with other
molecules in the body; hydrogen peroxide and
hydroperoxyl are the most common type of free
radicals that may occur.
 Biological Stage- occurs in tentas of minutes and/or
years; considered to be late effects.
IRRADIATION OF
MACROMOLECULES
 IN VITRO- Irradiation outside of the cell or body
 IN VIVO- is irradiation within the body

”irradiation in vivo, that is, within the living cell,

demonstrates that macromolecules are
considerably more radiosensitive in their natural
state”
IRRADIATION OF
MACROMOLECULES IN
VITRO
Main-chain scission
Cross linking
Point Lesion
MAIN-CHAIN SCISSION
 Is the breakage of the thread of the backbone
of the long-chain macromolecule
 the result is the reduction of a long single
molecule into many smaller molecules, each of
which may still be macromolecular in nature
 Main-chain scission not only reduces the size
of macromolecule but also the viscosity of the
solution
CROSS-LINKING
 Attachment of the side structure of the
macromolecule that behave as though they
have a sticky substance on the end to a
neighboring macromolecule or to another
segment of the same molecule after irradiation
 Radiation induced molecular cross-linking
increases the viscosity of a macromolecule
solution
POINT LESIONS
 Disruption of single chemical bonds produces
point lesions in a molecule
 At low radiation doses, point lesions are
considered to be the cellular radiation damage
process, which results in the late radiation
effects observed at the whole body level
THREE PRINCIPAL
OBSERVABLE EFFECTS
RESULTING FROM
IRRADIATION
 CELL DEATH OF DNA
 MALIGNANT DISEASE
 GENETIC DAMAGE
TARGET THEORY
 For a cell to die after radiation exposure, its
target molecule must be inactivated
 DNA- is the key molecular target in target
theory
DETERMINISTIC EFFECT OF
RADIATION
(EARLY EFFECT)
 Deterministic radiation responses are those
that exhibit increasing severity with increasing
radiation dose. Furthermore, there is a dose
threshold, and the dose-response relationship
is nonlinear.
 To produce a radiation response in humans
within a few days to months, the dose must be
substantial. Such a response is called an early
effect of radiation exposure.
ACUTE RADIATION
LETHALITY
Death- the most devastating human
response to radiation exposure
ACUTE RADIATION
SYNDROME
 Sequence of events after high-level radiation
exposure leads to death within days or weeks
 Three separate syndromes that are dose related and
that follow a rather distinct course of events
 1. Hematologic syndrome
 2. Gastrointestinal (GI syndrome)
 3. Central Nervous System (CNS) syndrome
STAGES OF ACUTE
RADIATION LETHALITY
 Prodromal syndrome- consist of acute clinical
symptoms that occur within hours of the exposure
and continue for up to a day or two.
 Latent period- during this time the subject is
free of visible effects
 Manifest illness- the clinical sign and symptoms
of this stage of acute radiation lethality can be
classified into the following three principal groups
LD50/60
 Dose of radiation to the whole body that causes 50%
of irradiated population or subjects to die within 60
days

Mean survival time - as the whole body radiation dose

increases, the average time between exposure and
death decreases.
 Erythema- sunburn-like reddening of the skin (200 rad)

Effects on the Gonads (female)

 Doses as low as 10 rad (100mGy) in the mature female may result in
delay or suppression of menstruation
 A dose of approximately 200 rad (2Gy) produces a pronounced temporary
infertility
 Approximately 500 rad (5Gy) to the ovaries is necessary to produce
permanent sterility
 Moderate doses of 25 to 50 rad (250 to 500 mGy) have been associated
with measurable increase in genetic mutation
 Effects on the Gonads (Male)
 Radiation doses as low as 10 rad (100 mGy)
can result in reduction in the number of
spermatozoa
 A dose of 200 rad (2Gy) produces
temporary sterility, which will commence
approximately, 2 months after irradiation
and persist for up to 12 months
 A dose of 500 rad (5 Gy) to the testes
produces permanent sterility
HEMOPOIETIC SYSTEM
 Consist of bone marrow, circulating blood,
and lymphoid tissue
 Lymphoid tissue- are the lymph nodes,
spleen, and thymus
 The principal effect of radiation on this system
is the depression of the number of blood
cells in peripheral circulation
STOCHASTIC EFFECT (LATE
EFFECTS OF RADIATION
EXPOSURE)
 Are the result of low doses delivered over a long period of time
 The radiation exposures experienced by personnel in diagnostic imaging
are low dose and low LET
 The principal effects of low-dose radiation over
a long period of time are:
1. Radiation-induced malignancy
2. Genetic effects
3. Life span shortening and effects on local
tissues
RADIATION AND
PREGNANCY
 Before pregnancy- the concern is interrupted
fertility
 During pregnancy- the concern is directed to the
possible congenital effects in newborn
 Post-pregnancy- concern are related to the
suspected genetic effects
CLARENCE MADISON DALLY
First American fatality from radiation
exposure (Thomas Edison’s assistant)
CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF
RADIATION PROTECTION
SHIELDING– insert shielding material
between the radiation source and the
exposed person
TIME – keep the time exposure to radiation
as short as possible
DISTANCE – maintain a large distance as
possible between the source of radiation and
the exposed person
MPD (MAXIMUM
PERMISSIBLE DOSE)
 The maximum dose of radiation that, in light of current
knowledge, would be expected to produce no significant
radiation effects
 Weekly MPD for occupational exposed persons is 100 mrem
 MPD for radiation workers than for the general public is 10x
greater
 MPD has been replaced by NCRP (National Council on
Radiation Protection and Measurement) with Dose
Limit (DL)
DOSE LIMITS
RECOMMENDED BY NCRP
 Occupational Exposures
Effective dose limit
Annual – 50 mSv (5000 mrem)
Cumulative- 10 mSv x age
Equivalent annual dose limit for tissues and organs
 Lens of the eye – 150 mSv
 skin, hand, and feet – 500 mSv
PUBLIC EXPOSURES
(ANNUAL)
 Effective dose limit, continuous or frequent exposure
– 1 mSv (100mrem)
infrequent exposure – 5
 Effective dose limit,
mSv (500 mrem)
 Equivalent dose limits for tissues and organs
Lens of the eye – 15 mSv
Skin, hand and feet – 50 mSv
PREGNANT TECHNOLOGIST/
RADIOLOGIST
 The DL (dose limit) becomes 0.5 msv/month (50 mrem/mo)
 The Dose limit for the fetus is 5 mSv ( 500 mrem) for the
period of pregnancy
The pregnant radiologic technologist
should be provided with a second
personnel monitoring device
DESIGNING FOR RADIATION
PROTECTION
Protective X-ray Tube Housing – xray
tube must be contained within protective
housing that reduces leakage radiation
during use.
Leakage radiation must be less than 100
mR/hr at a distance of 1 m from the
protective housing
SOURCE TO IMAGE
RECEPTOR DISTANCE
INDICATOR
 A source to image receptor distance (SID) indicator
must be provided.
 This can be as simple as a tape measure attached to
the tube housing, or as advanced as lasers.

“ the SID indicator must be accurate

to within 2% of the indicated SID”
COLLIMATION
 Light- localized, variable-aperture rectangular
collimators should be provided.
 Cones and diaphragms may replace the
collimator for special examinations.

the x-ray beam and the light beam

must coincide to within 2% of the SID
POSITIVE-BEAM LIMITATION
The PBL must be accurate to within
2% of the SID
BEAM ALIGNMENT
 In addition to proper collimation, each
radiographic tube should be provided with a
mechanism to ensure proper alignment of the
xray beam and the image receptor.
 It does no good to align the light field and the
xray beam if the image receptor is not also
align
FILTRATION
 All general purpose diagnostic x-ray beam
must have a total filtration (inherent plus
added) of at least 2.5 mm Al when operated
above 70 kVp.
 50-70 kVp - 1.5 mm Al
 < 50 kVp - .5 mm Al
EXPOSURE
REPRODUCIBILITY
 For any given radiographic technique, the output
radiation intensity should be constant from one
exposure to another.
 This is checked by making repeated radiographic
exposures through the same technique and observing
the average variation in radiation intensity.
 The variation in x-ray intensity should not
exceed 5%
EXPOSURE LINEARITY
The maximum acceptable
variation in linearity is 10% .
OPERATOR SHIELD
It must not be possible to expose
an image receptor while the
radiologic technologist stands
unprotected outside a fixed
protective barrier, usually the
console booth.
MOBILE X-RAY IMAGING
SYSTEM
 A protective lead apron should be assigned to each
mobile x-ray imaging system.
 The exposure switch of such an imaging system must
allow the operator to remain at least 2 m from the x-
ray tube during exposure.
 Of course, the useful beam must be directed away
from the radiologic technologist while positioned at
this minimum distance.
FLUOROSCOPIC
PROTECTION
 The fluoroscopic image receptor assembly serves as a primary
protective barrier and must be 2 mm Pb equivalent
 STATIONARY FLUOROSCOPES – the SSD must
be not less than 38 cm
 MOBILE FLUOROSCOPES- the SSD must be not
less than 30 cm
PROTECTIVE CURTAIN
 A protective curtain or panel of at least 0.25
mm equivalent should be positioned between
the fluoroscopist and the patient.
 Without the curtain and the Bucky slot cover,
the exposure of radiology personnel is many
times higher.
CUMULATIVE TIMER
 A cumulative timer that produces an audible
signal when the fluoroscopic time has
exceeded 5 minutes must be provided.
DOSE AREA PRODUCT
 The intensity of the xray beam at the tabletop of a
fluoroscope should not exceed 21 mGy/min (2.1
R/min) for each mA operation at 80 kVp.
 If there is no optional high-level control, the intensity
must not exceed 100 mGy/min (10 R/min) during
fluoroscopy.
 If an optional high level control is provided, the
maximum tabletop intensity allowed is 200 mGy/min
(20 R/min).
FACTORS AFFECTING
BARRIER THICKNESS
 Occupancy factor – the use of the area that is being
protected is of principal importance. If the area were rarely
occupied closet or storeroom. The required shielding would be
less than if it were an office or laboratory that was occupied 40
hours per week.
 Controlled area – An area that is occupied primarily by
radiology personnel and patients.
 design limits for a controlled area are based on the annual
recommended occupational dose limit of 50 mSv/yr.
FACTORS AFFECTING
BARRIER THICKNESS
 Uncontrolled area– can be occupied by anyone;
therefore, the maximum exposure rate allowed is based on the
recommended dose limit for the public of 1mSv/yr.
 Workload – The shielding required for an x-ray examination
room depends on the level of radiation activity on that room.
The greater the number of examinations performed each
week, the thicker the shielding required.
 workload is expressed in units of milliampere-minutes
per week (ma-min/wk)
FACTORS AFFECTING
BARRIER THICKNESS
 Use Factor - the percentage of time during which the x-ray
beam is on and directed toward a particular protective barrier.
 The NCRP recommends that walls be assigned a use factor of
¼ and the floor a use factor of 1.
 A room designed strictly for chest radiography has one wall
with a use factor of 1.
 RADIATION DETECTOR
MEASUREMENT
 GAS FILLED DETECTORS – The ionization of gas is the
basis for gas-filled radiation detectors.
 Ion Chamber – Wide range, accurate, portable – survey for
radiation levels of 10 uGy/hr. it occurs in the range of 100-
300 V.
 Proportional Counter – Laboratory instrument, accurate,
sensitive, assay of small quantities of radionuclides. It has
the ability to distinguish between alpha and beta radiation.
 Geiger Muller– are used for contamination control in nuclear
medicine laboratories. The G.M counter does not have a
very wide range. Most instruments are limited to less than 1
mGy/hr.
SCINTILLATION DETECTORS
 The scintillation detector is the basis for the
gamma camera in nuclear medicine and is used
in the detector arrays of CT imaging systems
 It is the image receptor for several types of
digital imaging systems.
OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION
MONITORING DEVICE
 Film badge - 10 mR (100 uGy)
 Thermoluminescence dosimeter – 5 mR (50 uGy);
lithium fluoride is the material used in TLD
 Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeter -
developed by Landauer in the late 1990’s. Uses aluminum
oxide (Al2O3) as the radiation detector. With a minimum
reportable dose of 10 uGy, OSL is more sensitive than TLD.
OSL has a precision of 10 uGy, which beats the TLD.
PROTECTIVE APPAREL
 The normal thickness for protective apparel are 0.25,
0.5, and 1 mm lead equivalent
 Maximum exposure reduction is obtained with the 1
mm lead equivalent
 An apron with 1 mm lead equivalent can weight as
much as 10 kg or 22 lb.
 0.5 mm lead equivalent has an x-ray attenuation of
75%
 0.25 mm and 1mm lead equivalent has 66% and
99% x-ray attenuation respectively
TWO TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
1. Stochastic effects
 Occur by law of chance or probability
 Independent of radiation dose
 Can cause cancer
 Can affect gene-material affecting future
generations
TWO TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
2. Deterministic effects
 Occurs only when threshold dose is exceeded
 Ex. Skin reddening, hair loss, temporary and
permanent sterility
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
RADIATION PROTECTION
Justification
Optimization
Dose limits for occupational
exposure
JUSTIFICATION
No practices involving exposure to
radiation should be adopted unless it
produces sufficient benefit to the exposed
individual or to society to offset the
radiation detriment it causes.
The net benefit must far outweigh the
risk.
OPTIMIZATION OF
PROTECTION
Keep doses as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA).
In theory, optimal image quality
allows one to make an accurate
diagnosis, but a certain ”balance”
between what is optimal and what is
acceptable is needed.
DOSE LIMIT
Occupational exposure should be
controlled so dose limits are not
exceeded.
To determine doses received by staff,
individual personal dose monitoring
devices are worn
“you should enjoy the little
detours to the fullest, because
that’s where you’ll find the
things more important than
what you want”

-Ging Freecss