Introduction to

Microbiology
Objectives

 Define microbiology and its related fields

 Know the different applications of
microbiology as well as the beneficial
effects of microorganisms
 Discuss the theories of spontaneous
generation and biogenesis
 Differentiate prokaryotes from eukaryotes
 Enumerate the different scientists who
contributed to the development of
microbiology
 Outline the divisions of microbiology and the
major interests of scientists in each discipline

 Discuss the major characteristics of

microorganisms

 Discuss about systematics and nomenclature

Microbiology
 Is the study of microorganisms and their
activities(form, structure, reproduction,
physiology, metabolism, and their identification)

 Pathogens – disease-causing microorganisms

 Non-pathogens- harmless or has no effect upon

us----beneficial

 Indigenous microflora – microbes that live in our

bodies (Skin, mouth, intestines, vagina)
 Pathogens
Category Examples of Diseases they cause
Algae A very rare cause of infections:
intoxications (which result from ingestion of
toxins)
Bacteria Anthrax, botulism, cholera, diphtheria, ear
and eye infections, food poisoning, gas
gangrene, gonorrhea, hemolytic uremic
syndrome (HUS), intoxications,
Legionnaries’ disease, leprosy, Lyme
disease, meningitis, plague, pneumonia,
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, scarlet
fever, staph infections, strep throat,
syphilis, tetanus, tuberculosis, tularemia,
typhoid fever typhus, urethritis, urinary
tract infections, whooping cough
Fungi Allergies, cryptococcosis, hisoplasmosis,
intoxications, meningitis, pneumonia,
thrush, tinea (ringworm) infections, yeast
 Pathogens
Category Examples of Diseases they cause
Protozoa African sleeping sickness, amebic
dysentery, babesiosis, Chagas’ disease,
cryptosporidiosis, diarrhea, giardiasis,
malaria, meningoencephalitis, pneumonia,
toxoplasmosis, trichomoniasis
Viruses Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS), “bird flu”, certain types of cancer,
chickenpox, cold sores (fever blisters),
common cold, dengue, diarrhea,
encephalitis, genital herpes infections,
German measles, hantavirus pulmonary
syndrome (HPS), hemorrhagic fevers,
hepatitis, infectious mononucleosis,
influenza, measles, meningitis, monkeypox,
mumps, pneumonia, polio, rabies, severe
acute respiratory syndrome (SARS),
shingles, smallpox, warts, yellow fever
Related Fields

 Mycology- is the study of fungi

 Parasitology – study of parasites

 Pathology- study of diseases in relation to health

 Phycology – study algea

 Protozoology – study of protozoa

 Rickettsiology – study of rickettsia

 Virology – study of viruses

Practical Applications

 It is important in medicine an allied health fields

 To educate students as to existence of

microorganisms—describe their anatomy and
physiology--- how they can be controlled

 Relationship between microbes and humans

from hospital situation
Beneficial Effects

 Use as laboratory specimen

 Used for food purposes

 Fermentation

 Production of lactobaccillus

 Good source of fertilizers

 Baking industry

 Production of medicines organic solvents,

beverages, enzymes and pesticides
 Products requiring Microbial
participation to the manufacturing
Category processExamples
Foods Acidophilus milk, bread, butter, buttermilk,
chocolate, coffee, cottage cheese, cream cheese,
fish sauces, green olives, kimchi (from cabbage),
meat products (e.g., country-cured hams,
sausage, salami), pickles, poi (fermented taro
root), sauerkraut, sour cream, sourdough bread,
soy sauce, various cheeses (e.g., cheddar, swiss,
limburger, camembert, Roquefort and other blue
cheeses), vinegar, yogurt
Alcoholic beverages Ale, beer, brandy, sake (rice wine), rum, sherry,
vodka, whiskey, wine
Chemicals Acetic acid, acetone, butanol, citric acid, ethanol,
formic acid, glycerol, isopropanol, lactic acid
Antibiotics Amphotericin B, bacitracin, cephalosporins,
chloramphenicol, cycloheximide, cycloserine,
erythromycin, griseofulvin, kanamycin,
lincomycin, neomycin, novobiocin, nystatin,
penicillin, polymyxin B, streptomycin, tetracycline
Theories on the origin
of microorganisms

 Spontaneous generation- theory of development of

living forms from non-living matter

Advocates of Spontaneous Generation:

1. Aristotle – thought that animals could originate

from the soil.

2. John Needham – observed the appearance of the

microorganisms in putrefying meat and interpreted
this as spontaneous generation
 Biogenesis – theory of development of living form from
another living thing.

Advocates of Biogenesis

1. Francisco Redi – he placed meat in a jar and

covered the jar with gauze to prevent access by flies. He
proved that maggots were not spontaneously generated
from decaying meat.

2. Abbe Lazaro – he boiled beef broth for an hour

sealed the flasks and observed no formation of microbes

3. Theodore Schwann – he passed the air through

red hot tubes and observed no growth
4. Schroeder and Von Dusch – they
filtered air through cotton filter into broth and
observed no growth
5. Louise Pasteur – he filtered
microorganisms from the air and concluded
that this was the source of contamination. He
develop the chicken cholera vaccine. Father
of bacteriology
6. John Tyndall – he proved that dust carried
germs, and found out that bacterial spores
could be killed by successive heating
 Other scientist who
contributed to the
development of
microbiology
 Joseph Lister – he demonstrated the value of
spraying operating rooms with aqueous phenol.
Father of antiseptic surgery. He develop the first
pure culture technique.

 Robert Koch – he isolated the causative agents of

anthrax, TB, and cholera.

 Edward Jenner – he developed the cowpox

vaccine.
 Gaffky – he isolated the causative agent of
typhoid fever.

 Iwanosky – he discovered the tobacco mosaic

disease.

 Alexander Fleming- he discovered penicillin.

 Waksman- he discovered streptomycin.

CELLULAR

Prokaryotic cells
Eubacteria
Archea

Eukaryotic cells
Archezoa
Chromista
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
 Prokaryotic Cell
 Can be spelled as procaryotes
 Derived from Greek words;”karyon” meaning
nut, a reference to the nucleus of the cell and
“pro” meaning primitive.
 Single-celled organism, ranging in size from 1
to 10 um
 Lack true nucleus
 No cytoskeleton
 Less DNA content
 Have no membrane-bound organelles
 Encountered in bacteria and archea, which are
members of Kingdom Monera.
 Very simple cells compared to eukaryotes, yet
they can carry on the necessary functions of
the cell.
 Reproduce through binary fission-simple
division of the cell into two parts following
formation of a separating membrane and cell
wall after DNA replication.
PROKARYOTIC CELL
Most prokaryotic cells lack any
detectable internal compartments,
and many are surrounded by a
rigid cell wall. The plasma
membrane may fold into a
multilayered structure called
mesosome. The content of the cell,
the cytoplasm, contain multiple
types of particles including a
“package” form of DNA (called
nucleoid) and ribosomes (factories
for the assembly of proteins). Pili
are small protrusions on the
outside of the plasma membrane
that aids the cell in attaching to
surfaces. Long thin filaments,
called flagella provide propulsion
because of their whipping action
Some have one or more smaller
DNA’S known as plasmids.
 A prokaryotic cell has
the following functions:
 A plasma membrane that encloses
the cytoplasm
 DNA material which is dispersed in the
nucleoid

Example: Escherichia coli (E. Coli)- found

in the intestinal flora of human
intestine is capable of dividing once in
every 20 minutes.
 Most are 10 to 100 un long
with infinitely more genetic
information
 Over 250 varieties of human
cells vary greatly in size
depending on their role and
function.
 Contain 200 times more DNA
than prokaryotes
 Contain multiple membrane
bodies known as organelles.
 Class of eukaryotes includes
plants, animals, fungi,
protozoans and some algae.
 Surrounded by plasma
membrane made up of
protein and lipid.
EUKARYOTIC CELL (Animal
Cell)
An animal cell typically contains
several types of membrane-
bound organs, or organelles.
The nucleus directs activities
of the cell and carries genetic
information from generation
to generation. The
mitochondria generate
energy for the cell. Proteins
are manufactured by
ribosomes, which are bound
to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum or float free in the
cytoplasm. The Golgi
apparatus modifies, packages
and distributes proteins while
lysosomes store enzymes for
digesting food. The entire cell
is wrapped in a lipid
membrane the plasma
membrane that selectively
permits materials to pass in
and out of the cytoplasm.
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
(Plant Cell)
 Plant cell contains variety of
membrane-bound structures called
organelles. These include a
nucleus that carries genetic
material; mitochondria that generate
energy; ribosomes that manufacture
proteins; smooth endoplasmic
reticulum that manufactures lipids
used for making membranes and
storing energy; and a thin lipid
membrane that surrounds the cell.
Plant cells also contain chloroplasts
that capture energy from sunlight
and a single fluid-filled vacuole that
stores compounds and helps in plant
growth. Plant cells are surrounded by
a rigid cell wall that protects and
support the cell.
 Comparison of Prokaryotes
and Eukaryotes

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Nucleus Absent Present with nuclear
membrane
Organelles Absent Present in a variety of
forms
DNA structure Single closed loop Multiple chromosomes
naked strand with no proteins associated with
protein DNA
Chlorophyll When present, When present,
dissolved in cytoplasm contained in chloroplast
Ribosome Smaller than Larger than prokaryotic
eukaryotic ribosomes ribosomes bound to
free in cytoplasm membranes
 Comparison of Prokaryotes
and Eukaryotes

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Cell wall Generally present Present in some types,

complex chemical absent in others simple
composition chemical composition

Reproduction Usually by fission no By mitosis

evidence of mitosis

Examples Bacteria, rickettsiae, Fungi, protozoa, plants,

chlamydiae, animals, humans
cyanobacteria
Divisions of Microbiology
 Medical Microbiology – deals with diseases-
producing microorganisms in humans. How the
organism can spread from one infected host to
another. How to prevent and to treat the
infection.

 Immunology – study of the host reactions to a

foreign substance in the body.

 Industrial Microbiology – includes a large

variety microbial activities. Many commercial
products- such as alcoholic beverages, organic
solvents, and antibiotics- are products of
microbial activities.
 Agricultural Microbiology – encompasses the
study of microorganisms that are either harmful
or beneficial to the production of agricultural
products. It focuses on the diseases of plants
and livestock, as well as the role of bacteria in
soil fertility.

 Food Microbiology - is the study of

microorganisms that causes food spoilage and
preservation.

 Dairy microbiology – the study of the

microbiology of fermented foods.

 Water sanitation – study water purification,

analysis of water purity and sewage disposal.
 Major Characteristics
of Microorganisms
1. Morphological Characteristics – refers to the size, shape
and their arrangement, differentiation and identification of
structures.
2. Cultural / colonial characteristics – refers to the nutrients
required for growth and the environmental conditions that will
favor their growth.
3. Metabolic/Biochemical Characteristics – refers to the
manner in which the microorganisms carry out the chemical
process of life.
4. Chemical composition characteristics – identification of
major characteristic chemical constituent of the cell.
5. Antigenic characteristics – detection of the
cells chemical components that provide
evidence for the similarities between species.

6. Genetic characteristics – this is the analysis

of the DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) and the
determination of the reactions between DNA
materials extracted from different species.
 Systematics and
Taxonomy
 Systematics – is the science of developing an
orderly arrangement of the species within each
major category of organisms.

 Taxonomy – is concerned with the

classification or systematic arrangement of
organisms into groups or categories.
 Three parts of
taxonomy
 Classification – this is orderly arrangement of
units into groups of larger units.

 Nomenclature – this is the naming of the units

defined and delineated by classification.

 Identification – microorganisms are identified

by comparing the characteristics of the unknown
to the known units.
 Specific names of
Bacteria
 Bacteria for each distinct kind are recognized
as a specie.
 According to the binomial system of
nomenclature, specie is given a name
consisting of two words.
 Example: Bacillus subtilis
Escherischia coli
 Common Names of
Bacteria
 Gonococcus – Neisseria Gonorrhea
 Tubercle Bacillus – Myocobacterium tuberculosis
 Diptheria Bacillus – Corynebacterium diptheriae
 Typhoid bacillus – Salmonella typhi
 Chapter II
Bacterial morphology
Objectives:
1. enumerate and discuss the different groups
of bacteria according to shape.
2. enumerate, discuss and describe the
different external and internal structures of the
bacterial cell.
3. identify the chemical composition and
specific functions of the bacterial structures.
 Morphology

 The study of for and structure

 Spherical or Ellipsoidal

 Round cells which multiply by binary fission and

their arrangement depends on the plane of
division.
 Morphologic types of cocci
1. Diplococci – occur in pairs of cells
2. Streptococci – cells arranged in beads or
chains.
3. Staphylococci –irregular clusters resembling
bunches of grapes.
4. Tetrads – four cells arranged in a square
along the same plane of division.
Cell Arrangement
 Cylindrical or Rod-
Shaped
(The BACILLI; sing.
 They do not have the variety of patterns exhibited
Bacillus)
by the cocci. Occasionally, they may be:
1. Diplobacilli – occur in pairs
2. Streptobacilli – occur in chains

 The corynebacteria display a palaside

arrangement, they have a tendency to produce
groupings of cells lined side by side like
matchsticks.
Cylindrical or Rod-
Shaped
(The BACILLI; sing.
Bacillus)
 Most bacilli, however, occur as single, unattached
cells. Some are only slightly longer than they are
wide; others are several times as long as they are
wide.
 Cell
Arrangement
 SPIRAL-SHAPED

 These occur predominantly as unattached

individual cells. Bacteria exhibit differences in:
a. length
b. number and amplitude of spirals
c. rigidity of cell walls.
 SPIRAL-SHAPED

 Divisions:
1. Spirilla – are actual spirals or helices, like
corkscrews. Their cell bodies are relatively rigid.
2. Spirochetes – are spiral bacteria, but they
differ from the spirilla in that they are able to flex
and wriggle their bodies while moving.
3. Vibrio/Comma Bacteria – short
incomplete spirals
Cell Arrangement
 Approximate
Composition of the
Bacterial Cell
 Water- 70%
 Dry Weight – 30%
Protein – 70%
RNA – 12%
DNA – 3%
Lipids – 6%
Polysaccharides – 5%
Phospholipids – 4%
 External Structures of
the Bacterial Cell

1. Flagella – are thin, hairlike appendages

protruding through the cell wall.
Chemical Composition: Flagellin (protein)
Classification of bacterial cell(Location and
number of flagella)
a. Monotrichous – with one polar flagella
b. Amphitrichous– with two or more polar flagella.
c. Lophotrichous – with tufts of flagella at both
poles.
Classification of bacterial cell(Location and
number of flagella)
d. Peritrichous - 8 or more flagella distributed
over the surface.
e. Atrichous – bacteria which do not possess
flagella
Functions of the Flagella:
1. Motility
2. Antigenecity – the protein composition serves
as the antigen and therefore elicit antibody
specific for flagella
Flagellum – Flagella

lopho peri

amphi mono
 Detection of Flagella
 Motility Test
a. Directly observed by microscopic examination
using wet mount and hanging drop technique.

True Motile – if the bacteria seems to be going in a

definite direction.

b. Indirectly observed by growth of bacteria in a

semisolid medium.
Motile – growth of bacteria is away from the
inoculation line.
Nonmotile – growth of bacteria is close from the
inoculation line
2. PILI (sing. PILUS) / FIMBRIAE (sing. FIMBRIA)
They are shorter and finer than the flagella. They
are seen in both motile and nonmotile bacteria,
therefore they are not concerned with motility.
Chemical Composition: Pilin (protein)

Types of Pili:
a. Ordinary Pili – play a role in the adherence of
symbiotic bacteria to host from cells.
b. Sex Pili – responsible for the attachment of the
donor cell and recipient cell in conjugation
 Functions:

a. The Fimbria pilus serves as a port of entry of

genetic material during bacterial conjugation.
b. Attachment site for bacterial viruses.
c. Facilitates adherence to mammalian surfaces.
d. Antigenecity
3. Capsule and Slime Layer and Glycocalyx

 Capsule – a condensed, well-defined layer

surrounding the cell made up from
polysaccharide.
 Slime layer – masses of polymer which appear
to be totally detached from the cells but
entraps the cell. This structures gives a mucoid
or viscous colony.
 Glycocalyx – a loose meshwork of fibrils
extending outward from the cell
 Chemical composition:
a. polysaccharide(seen in most bacteria)
ex. Strep. Pneumoniae
b. polypeptide
ex. Bacillus anthracis
c. nucleic acid admixed with polysaccharide
ex. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Functions in general:
a. Antiphagocytic and antibacteriophage
b. Antigenecity

 Significance of the capsule:

1. Associated with virulence, bacteria makes the
infection more difficult to combat because of
its antiphagocytic property.
2. Capsular material can be extracted and used
in the preparation of dextran, cellulose and
levans from sucrose.
4. Cell Wall

 Lies between the capsule and the cytoplasmic

membrane.
 It is rigid and elastic, retains its original shape
even after being subjected to osmotic pressure
changes or freezing.
Chemical Composition: peptidoglycan and
diaminopimelic acid
Peptidoglycan/murein – a complex polymeric
substances found in all bacterial cell walls. It
provides strength and rigidity of the cell wall.
Functions
 Protects the cell from mechanical damage and
from osmotic rupture in dilute media.
 Essential for bacterial growth and cell division
 Responsible for the shape of the cell
 Major distinction between gram + and gram –
bacteria.
 Antigenic specificities
 Protoplasts- formed after the removal of the cell
wall of a gram + bacteria.
It maybe produced by:
a. removal of the cell wall by treating the cells
with an enzyme(lysozyme) which selectively
dissolves the cell wall material.
b. growing the organism in an environment
which prevents the synthesis of cell wall
substance but does not interfere with growth
and reproduction
 Spheroplasts – formed after the removal of the cell
wall of a gram – bacteria under the same
conditions as that of the protoplasts.
Internal Structures of
the Cell
1. Cytoplasmic
membrane/Protoplasmic
membrane

This structure is a thin covering lying

immediately beneath the cell wall. This structure
is destroyed by certain agents like detergents,
polymixin and other antibiotics. Damage to this
membrane by physical and chemical agents may
result in the death of the cell.
Chemical Composition: Complex lipoprotein

Functions:
1. essential for viability
2. selective permeability – controls the passage of
nutrients and waste products into and out of the
cell.
3. it contains the enzymes that synthesizes
complex liquids as well as the components of
the cell wall, enzymes involved in electron
transport and oxidative phosphorylation.
 2. Mesosomes

 It is an extremely important structure associated

with several vital processes of the cell since it is
an extension of the cytoplasmic membrane.

Functions:

1. they are involved in septum formation during

the process of bacterial cell division.
2. they are associated with bacterial nuclear
material
3. Ribosomes

 These are RNA-protein particles. It contains

the enzymes, which function in protein
synthesis.
4. Nuclear Material

 Bacterial cells do not contain the nucleus

characteristic of the cells of the higher plants
and animals. They do not, however, contain
“bodies” within the cytoplasm that are
regarded as nuclear structure and the DNA of
the bacterial cell is confined to this area.
 The DNA carries within its molecules the
messages that control the activities of the
cell.
5. Cytoplasmic Inclusions

 These are concentrated deposits of certain

substances. They are also known as volutin or
metachromatic granules.

Chemical Composition: Metaphosphate and

polyphosphate

 Function : source of stored food

6. Endospores

 These are thick-walled oval body produced by

some bacteria. These oval bodies are
commonly called spores. They are resistant to
physical and chemical agents due to
dipicolinic and calcium complex and in part to
their dehydrated state.
 As long as environmental conditions are
adverse to the growth of the bacterium, the
endospore will remain a spore. However, if
conditions become favorable for growth, it
germinates and becomes a vegetative cell.
sporulation

 The process of spore formation.

 The spore represents a dormant phase of
the bacterial cell.
 Example of bacteria which are capable of
producing endospore.
a. bacillus
b. clostridium
c. desulfotomaculum
d. sporolactobacillus
e. sporosarcinae
Location of the spores within the cell

1. Central
2. Terminal
3. Subterminal
Sporulation

Fig. 4.21