EDDY CURRENT

Eddy Current Inspection Procedures

Level 1 & 2

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 Eddy Current Inspection
Procedures

• Surface inspections
• Tubing inspections
• Conductivity testing
• Thickness measurement

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EDDY CURRENT
Surface Inspection

Level 1 & 2

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 Surface
Inspection

• Surface inspections are one of the oldest and most

important.

• Manufacturing inspection of small steel components

for defects and hardness is almost exclusively done
with eddy currents.

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 Surface
Inspection

• Emphasis will be given to signal analysis and how to

recognize and discriminate between signals and false
indications.

• We’ll be using a lot of the previously instructed

material.

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 Defect Signal
Amplitude

• When a defect interferes with the normal path,

current is forced to flow around or under it or is
interrupted completely.

• The increased distance of the distorted path

increases the resistance to current (just the same as
a long wire has more resistance than a short wire).

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 Defect Signal
Amplitude

• If a defect is very deep but short, current will flow

around the ends.

• If a defect is
very long but
shallow, the
current will flow
underneath.

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 Defect Signal
Amplitude

• As previously discussed,
the resistive element to the
eddy currents moves the
operating point of the
sensing coil up the
impedance diagram.

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Defect Signal
Amplitude

• When a surface probe is

placed over a deep surface
breaking crack, the surface
currents must pass
underneath the defect if they
are to form a closed loop.

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Defect Signal
Amplitude

• This is not the case with

subsurface defects, the void
may not be detected since
the currents concentrate near
the surface where they are
more sensitive to surface
defects.

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 Remember Skin
Effect ?

• Current density drops with distance from the surface

37% of the E.C. is left after 1

(so 63% of the E.C. is within the 1st SDP)
13.5% left at 2
5% left at 3

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 Remember Skin
Effect ?

• Since only 5% of the current flows at depths

greater than the 3, there is no way to detect
a subsurface defect at this distance from the
surface.

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 Defect Signal
Amplitude

• If we have a surface crack 3

deep, most of the current is
flowing under the defect, the
defect will be detected and depth
can be determined.

• Defects will generate greater

amplitudes when they are close
to the surface.
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 Remember
Phase lag?

• Eddy current flow increasingly lags in phase (relative

to currents next to the coil) both with depth and with
axial distance from the coil.

• Skin depth effect occurs in both radial and axial

directions.

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 Defect Signal
Phase

• Phase Lag permits an approximate derivation of

depth, but we need a starting point…

• Lift-Off direction is very convenient and is defined as

the signal produced when the coil is lifted from the
part.

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 Defect Signal
Phase

• Lift-off is usually positioned

on the right side and rotated
so that when lifted, will drift
straight to the left.

• This is the way Canadians

do it, so this is the way we’re
going to do it. Position when coil is on
test material

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 Defect Signal
Phase

• Because of the phase lag, and we now have a

reference, we can now approximate the depth of
defects to a certain extent.

• Shallow defects will be closer to the lift-off, while

deeper defects will increase in angle away from the
lift-off line.

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Defect Signal
Phase

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 Effect of material
variations

• For each test, one must decide on the test frequency

to use and on the phase setting.

• The conventional way of

setting phase, is to display
the “lift-off” signal
horizontally, moving from
right to left as the probe is
raised.

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 Effect of material
variations

• All material
variables will
then display in a
clockwise fashion
relative to lift-off.

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 Discrimination
between defects

• Discrimination between defects and other

variables is accomplished through pattern
recognition and varying test frequency.

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 Signal Analysis

• Electrical resistivity
signal angle, relative
to lift-off, increases
only slightly as
frequency is
increased.

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 Signal Analysis

• Plate thickness
signal angle
continually
increases with
frequency

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 Signal Analysis
• The
permeability of
the plate is
approximately
90 degrees to
the lift-off at low
freq. and
decreases only
slightly with
increasing
frequency.

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Signal Analysis

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Signal Analysis

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 Signal Analysis

• Discrimination between defects and variables

takes time, experience and a good knowledge of
impedance planes.

• An extremely important point to remember is

that all defects will fall between the lift-off and
decreasing thickness signal regardless of
frequency.

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 Surface Defect
Measurement

• Surface defect measurement is accomplished by

comparing the defect signal to calibration defects.

• Defect depth is estimated by comparison.

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Surface Defect
Measurement

• Amplitude is not
a reliable
parameter,
amplitude is
affected by
length and
degree of
contact across
the crack.

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 Ferromagnetic
Indications

• DC saturation is not often used when testing non-

magnetic alloys such as austenitic stainless and
nickel base alloys.

• Alloys containing iron, nickel or cobalt can display

variations in magnetic permeability.

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 Examples of
Ferromagnetic
Indications

• Ferromagnetism associated with manufacturing defects in

Inconel 600 extrusions (possibly from chromium depletion at the
surface).

• Ferromagnetism associated with EDM calibration grooves in

Type 304 SS.

• These examples would make defect depth prediction seriously

inaccurate.

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 Examples of
Ferromagnetic
Indications
• Permeability variations occurring in austenitic SS
castings probably due to segregation (or possibly
contamination).

• Ferromagnetic inclusions in zirconium alloys resulting

from pick-up during forming.

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 Examples of
Ferromagnetic
Indications

• Magnetite deposits on heat exchanger tubes due to

steel corrosion somewhere else in the cooling system.

• These last three could be mistaken for defects such as

cracks or pitting.

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 Permeability
Variations

• Can be suppressed by DC saturation or retested at a

much lower frequency.

• As the test frequency is reduced, the operating point

moves up the impedance curve, defects close up but the
permeability change will actually open up in angle.

• Note: If the perm change is subsurface, the signal will be

rotated by phase lag.

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Permeability
Variation

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 To Summarize
• Many nominally non-magnetic alloys can exhibit
ferromagnetic properties and almost any alloy can pick-up
magnetic inclusions or contamination during manufacture
or service.

• At normal eddy current test frequencies magnetic

indications will often appear similar to defects.

• Magnetic indications can be distinguished by retesting at

reduced frequencies.

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 Resistivity
Variations

• Resistivity can often vary over large areas of

material, but if the variation is localized, it
can be mistaken for a small defect.

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 Resistivity
Variations

• The best means of distinguishing the two is to

rescan with a smaller probe at the same
frequency, at three times the frequency, and at
one third the test frequency.

• Unlike a defect, the angle between resistivity and

lift-off changes little with frequency.

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 Resistivity
Variations

• As with the detection of any signal, resistivity is

affected by skin depth.

• At a high frequency, when skin depth is thin,

there will be a greater sensitivity to surface
resistivity variations.

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 Surface
Geometry

• Abrupt changes in surface curvature results in eddy

current signals as the probe crosses them.

• This is caused by the increase or decrease of

material around the coil creating a resistive change.

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 Surface
Geometry

• A convex surface for example,

produces a change in the direction
of increasing resistivity
(or decreasing conductivity).

• A concave surface, would produce

a change in the direction of
decreasing resistivity.

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 Calibration
Standards
• Analysis of eddy current signals,
is for the most part, a
comparative technique.

• Calibration standards are

necessary for comparing signal
amplitude and phase (shape) of
unknown defects to known
calibration defects.

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 Calibration
Standards
• Reference standards with known defects can be
used as test standards.

• Artificial or natural discontinuities can intentionally

be added to a material to form a calibration
standard.

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 Reference
Standards
• Reference standards are used for
several purposes.

• Materials with known variables

may be used in the initial set-up
of the system to suppress
undesirable variables, or to verify
the sensitivity of the equipment
as well as the overall
performance of a testing system.

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 Reference
Standards

• A reference standard is prepared by selecting a

material, which is identical in composition, history
and dimension to the materials being tested.

• The reference standard should be as free as

possible from inherent defects.

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 Reference
Standards
• Artificial discontinuities are used to simulate
material discontinuities such as longitudinal
cracks, circumferential notches, drilled holes, file
cuts, pits, diameter steps and indentations.

• Natural discontinuities can be developed or

accumulated. Cracks may be formed by fatigue
testing until destruction and then machining the
defect to assure detectability.

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 Performance
Standards
• A performance standard is used to qualify a test system
for a particular test.

• Such a reference is normally used at the beginning of a

test to ensure that all controls are properly set and the
system performance is acceptable.

• The performance reference is prepared with a wide

variety of discontinuities that the system can detect the
variables of interest.

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 Some
Examples
• Conductivity • Bolthole standards
standards
• Tube standards
• Thickness standards
• Multi-layer standards
• General surface
inspection standards • Lift-off standards

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 Summary

• We’ve discussed how phase and amplitude are used

to determine properties of a defect

• Frequency changes have a definite effect on certain

variables

• Ferromagnetic and resistivity indication can be easily

mistaken for actual defects

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 Summary

• Geometry can affect our eddy current signal in a

resistive manner

• And there are a variety of calibration, reference

and performance standards available to validate
inspections or just to compare signals with

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