Microwave Devices and Systems

Chapter 1
Introduction to Microwave
Engineering
 Introduction
Definition
 Microwaves are the ultrahigh, superhigh, and extremely high frequencies
directly above the lower frequency ranges where most radio
communication now takes place and below the optical frequencies that
cover infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light.
 The word Microwave means very short wave, which is the shortest
wavelength region of the radio spectrum and a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. (shown in electromagnetic spectrum below)
Microwave Frequencies
 The practical microwave region is generally considered to extend from 1 to
30 GHz, although frequencies could include up to 300 GHz. Microwave
signals in the 1- to 30-GHz have wavelengths of 30 cm to 1 cm.
 Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose frequencies range from
about 300 MHz – 300 GHz (1 MHz = 10 6 Hz and 1 GHz = 10 9 Hz) or
wavelengths in air ranging from 1m – 1 mm.
 Properties of Microwaves
1. Microwave is an electromagnetic radiation of short
wavelength. Wavelength is related to frequency by:

Wavelength*Frequency=Velocity of light

2. They can reflect by conducting surfaces just like optical

waves since they travel in straight line. Also absorbed by
dielectric materials.
3. Microwave currents flow through a thin outer layer of an
ordinary cable.
4. Microwaves are easily attenuated within short distances.
5. They are not reflected by ionosphere
Electro Magnetic Spectrum
IEEE Microwave frequency bands
Designation Frequency range
Medium frequency (MF) 300 kHz-3 MHz
High frequency (HF) 3MHz-30MHz
Very high frequency (VHF) 30MHz-300MHz
Ultra high frequency (UHF) 300MHz-1GHz
L band 1GHz-2GHz
S band 2GHz-4GHz
C band 4GHz-8GHz
X band 8GHz-12GHz
Ku band 12GHz-18GHz
K band 18GHz-27GHz
Ka band 27GHz-40GHz
Millimeter 40GHz-300GHz
Sub millimeter >300GHZ
 Advantages of Microwaves:
 Solve the problem of spectrum crowding
 Provides larger instantaneous bandwidth for
transmission of much information
 Radio systems do not require a right-of-way
acquisition between stations
 Each station requires the purchase or lease of only a
small area of land
 Wide bandwidths make it possible to use various
multiplexing techniques to transmit more
information.
 Transmission of high-speed binary information
requires wide bandwidths and these are easily
transmitted on microwave frequencies.
 ….. Cont’d
 High frequencies mean short wavelengths, which
require relatively short antennas
 Radio signals are more easily propagated around
physical obstacles such as water and high mountains
 Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification
 Distances between switching centers are less
 Underground facilities are minimized
 Minimum delay times are introduced
 Minimum crosstalk exists between voice channels
 Increased reliability and less maintenance are
important factors
 Disadvantages of Microwaves:
 The higher the frequency, the more difficult it becomes to
analyze and design electronic circuits.
-wave analysis rather than circuit analysis
 It is difficult to implement conventional circuit
components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, and so on) at
microwave frequencies.
-existence of stray and distributed reactances –
residuals
 Transient time is more critical at microwave frequencies.
-the amount of time it takes for the current carriers to
move through the device
 
Need for microwave devices:
At the microwave frequencies conventional transistors, IC’s and wiring won’t
work due to
1. Lead reactance
2. Transit time
1. Lead reactance
 A 10V ac oscillator is connected to a 50 Ω resistor by a copper wire (L=2.5 cm,
D=1mm). It has a dc resistance of 0.4 mΩ and an inductance of 0.027 µH.

 For low frequency electronics is negligible compared with 50 Ω load resistor.

The inductive reactance of the wire is . This X increases with frequency. So almost
all of the oscillator voltage is dropped across the connecting wire and never gets to
the load resistor
Example: = 6MHz ; X=1 Ω, = 6GHz ; X = 1000 Ω
Because of lead reactance conventional devices (wires) cannot be used to connect
microwave devices. Special microwave transmission lines are required to conduct the
microwave signal from one part of the equipment to another.
 … Cont’d
2. Transit time
 Transit time is the time required for electrons to travel from the
cathode to the plate. At low frequency, the transit time is very
negligible. But, however at higher frequencies, transit time
becomes an appreciable portion of a signal cycle which results in
decrease in efficiency of device.
 In the FET, a change in gate voltage produces a change in the
electron flow from the source to drain with a finite time (transit
time).
 At microwave frequencies this finite (transit) time becomes a
large fraction of the cycle.
 Because of the lead reactance and transit time problems, special
microwave devices must be used in place of the wiring,
transistors, and Ics of low frequency electronics.
 Behavior of Circuits at Conventional and
RF/Microwave Bands
Low Frequency/ Conventional
 Bandwidths are limited hence
small no. of channels can be
adjusted.
 It uses lumped element circuit
theory.
 Current flow and voltage drops
are used to calculate power.
 Open wire, twisted cables, co-
axial cables are used as
transmission lines.
RF/Microwaves
 Provide large bandwidth so its
possible to adjust large no. of
channels.
 It uses distributed circuit
theory.
 Scattering phenomena like
absorption, reflection,
refraction, etc. are used in
power calculation.
 Optical fibers, waveguides, strip
lines, micro-strip lines are
common transmission lines.
 …Cont’d
Low Frequency/ Conventional
 Lumped circuit elements
are used such as resistors,
filters, oscillators, etc.
 It uses current modulated
mode.
 Almost all the solid state
devices can be used.
 It can handle low power.
RF/Microwaves
 Cavity resonators or resonant
lines are used as oscillators,
resonators, etc.
 Density modulation or velocity
modulation are used using
magnetrons, klystrons, TWTs,
etc.
 Vacuum tube like devices, micro-
miniaturised solid state devices
like Gunn diodes, tunnel diodes,
IMPITT, TRAPPIT, etc. are used.
 It can handle higher power.
12
 Application of Microwave systems
 The two special features of microwave systems are
1. High frequency
2. Short wavelength
 Antenna gain is proportional to the electrical size of the antenna. At
higher frequencies, more antenna gain can be obtained for a given
physical antenna size, and this has important consequences when
implementing microwave systems.
 More bandwidth (directly related to data rate) can be realized at higher
frequencies. A 1% bandwidth at 600 MHz is 6 MHz, which (with binary
phase shift keying modulation) can provide a data rate of about 6 Mbps
(megabits per second), while at 60 GHz a 1% bandwidth is 600 MHz,
allowing a 600 Mbps data rate.
 Microwave signals travel by line of sight and are not bent by the
ionosphere as are lower frequency signals. Satellite and terrestrial
communication links with very high capacities are therefore possible,
with frequency reuse at minimally distant locations.
 ….Cont’d
 The effective reflection area (radar cross section) of a radar
target is usually proportional to the target’s electrical size. This
fact, coupled with the frequency characteristics of antenna gain,
generally makes microwave frequencies preferred for radar
systems.
 Various molecular, atomic, and nuclear resonances occur at
microwave frequencies, creating a variety of unique
applications in the areas of basic science, remote sensing,
medical diagnostics and treatment, and heating methods.
 The majority of today’s applications of RF and microwave
technology are to wireless networking and communications
systems, wireless security systems, radar systems,
environmental remote sensing, and medical systems.
 Microwave systems are used in following
applications:
1. Communication 3. Radar
 UHF TV  Search
 Microwave relay  Airport traffic control
 Navigation
 Satellite
 Tracking
communication
 Fire control
 Troposcatter  Radar altimeter
communication  Velocity measuring
 Mobile radio 4. Microwave heating
 Telemetry  Industrial heating
2. Electronics jammers  Home microwave ovens
 Basic Microwave System

Block diagram of a microwave communication system

 1. Microwave transmission lines
 The three basic types of microwave transmission lines are
i) Coaxial cable
ii) Waveguide
iii) Microstripline
 2. Signal control components
 A variety of special signal control devices must be used
at microwave frequencies such as attenuators, phase
shifters, cavities, couplers, filters, loads, circulators,
isolators and switches.
i) Attenuators
 Used to control the amplitude of the microwave signal.
 It can be fixed, or mechanically or electrically adjusted.
 Eg. Pin diodes are electronically adjustable attenuation.
ii) Phase shifter
 It shift the signal’s phase, like attenuators, they can be
fixed or mechanically or electrically adjusted.
 .... Cont’d
iii) Resonant cavities
 It separates band of frequencies from a microwave signal.
 Microwave tubes are built into these cavities for tunning,
which can be done electronically or mechanically.
iv) Loads Used to terminate a transmission line during
performance testing.
v) Directional couplers Sample the power flowing in one
direction down a transmission line
vi) Circulators and Isolators Allow microwaves to travel in
only one direction down the transmission line
vii) Switches It can be mechanically or electrically
actuated.
3. Semiconductor amplifiers and oscillators

Microwave oscillators and low power amplifiers are

made from 6 types of transistor-like devices,
1. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
2. Field-effect Transistors (FET)
3. High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMT)
4. Varactor multipliers
5. IMPATTs
6. Gunn devices
 4. Microwave Tubes
 The power capabilities of microwave semiconductor
devices are limited. Most microwave systems need
more power than semiconductor sources can provide,
so microwave amplifier tubes are required
 The various microwave tubes are
1. Magnetron
2. Klystron
3. Helix travelling wave tube (TWT)
4. Coupled-cavity TWT
5. Crossed-field amplifier (CFA)
6. Gyrotron
 5. Microwave Antennas
Microwave antennas are used to transmit and receive
microwaves.
 The most common microwave antenna is the parabolic dish.
 The antenna consists of a horn that radiates microwave onto
the parabolic surface of the dish, Where they are focused
into a narrow beam.
 By making the dish big enough or the wavelength small
enough, the beamwidth of a Microwave antenna can be only
a fraction of a degree.
6. Low noise microwave receivers
 The major requirement of a low noise receiver is that it
amplify the very weak received microwave signal without
increasing the noise level.
 Skin depth/depth of penetration
 Microwave travel inside the transmission line as electric and
magnetic fields
 They are not carried in the metal walls of the transmission lines
but in the space between the walls.
 If the walls were made of perfect conductors, the microwave
would not penetrate at all into the walls of the guide.
 However the walls are not perfect conductors, so the microwave
fields penetrate slightly into the walls.
 The depth to which they extend is called skin depth.
 The skin depth depends on the frequency of the microwaves and
the material of the transmission line walls.
 Skin depth is defined as the distance in the walls at which the
fields have decreased to 36.8% of their value at the surface.
 Insertion loss and Return loss
Insertion loss describes the reduction of a microwave signal as it
passes through a component.
Whenever a microwave transmission line is connected to a microwave
device, the electric and magnetic fields in the transmission line and in
the device do not match, so some of the microwave power is reflected at
the connection. This reflected power is specified by return loss.
Microwave power is sent down a transmission line to a microwave
component (may be a filter, isolator, attenuator, amplifier). This power is
the incident power.
When it reaches the component, a portion is reflected back down the
transmission line and never enters the component because microwave
field configurations in the transmission line and the component are
different. Unless two identical sections of transmission lines, or two
identical components are being connected, not all of the power will get
from the transmission line into the microwave component.
Gain
 Microwave Network Analysis
 It is much easier to apply the simple and intuitive
idea of circuit analysis to a microwave problem than
it is to solve Maxwell’s equations for the same
problem.
 Maxwell’s equations for a given problem is
complete, it gives the E & H fields at all points in
space.
 Usually we are interested in only the V & I at a set of
terminals, the power flow through a device, or some
other type of “global” quantity.
 A field analysis using Maxwell’s equations for
problems would be hopelessly difficult. 28
 1. Impedance and Admittance Matrices
 For n ports network we can relate the voltages and currents
by impedance and admittance matrices

tN: terminal plane

providing the phase
reference for V, I
The total voltage and
current on the n-th
port:

Vn =Vn+ +Vn-
I n =I n+ - I n-
An arbitrary N-port microwave network
 The impedance matrix [Z] of the microwave network then relates
these voltages and currents
  𝑉1 𝑍 11 𝑍 21 . . 𝑍𝑛1 𝐼1

[ ][ 𝑉2

¿.
𝑍 12 𝑍 22
. = .
.
.
.
¿ 𝑉 𝑛 𝑍1𝑛 𝑍2𝑛
.
.
.
.
. 𝑍𝑛2
. .
. .
. 𝑍 𝑛𝑛
][ ]
𝐼2
.
.
𝐼𝑛
[ 𝑉 ] =[ 𝑍 ] [ 𝐼 ]

 Similarly, we can define an admittance matrix [Y] as [Z] =[Y ]- 1

  𝐼1 𝑌 11 𝑌 21 . . 𝑌 𝑛1 𝑉 1

[ ][ 𝐼2

¿.
𝑌 12 𝑌 22
. = .
.
.
.
¿ 𝐼 𝑛 𝑌 1 𝑛 𝑌 2𝑛
.
.
.
.
. .
][ ]
. 𝑌 𝑛2 𝑉 2
. . .
.
. 𝑌 𝑛𝑛 𝑉 𝑛
[ 𝐼 ] = [ 𝑌 ] [ 𝑉 ]

[ 𝑍 ] [ 𝑌 ] =[ 𝑈 ]

The [Z] and [Y] matrices are the inverse of each other.
 Note that both [Z] and [Y] matrices relate the total
port voltages and currents.
[ 𝑌 ] =[ 𝑍 ]−1

 Zij can be found as   𝑉 𝑖

𝑍 𝑖𝑗 =
𝐼𝑗 | 𝐼 𝑘 =0,   for   k   ≠ j

 Yij can be found as 𝐼 𝑖  

𝑌 𝑖𝑗 = |
𝑉 𝑗 𝑉 =0,   for   k  ≠ j
𝑘

 which states that Yij can be determined by driving port

j with the voltage Vj, short-circuiting all other ports
(so Vk = 0 for k ≠ j) and measuring current at port i.
 Reciprocal Networks
 Reciprocal networks usually contain nonreciprocal
media such as ferrites or plasma, or active devices.
it can be seen that the impedance and admittance
matrices are symmetrical, so that
𝑍 𝑖𝑗=𝑍 𝑗𝑖  and  𝑌 𝑖𝑗=𝑌 𝑗𝑖
 

Lossless Networks
 If the network is lossless, it can be seen that all the
Zij and Yij elements are purely imaginary.
 Either of these cases serves to reduce the number
of independent quantities or degree of freedom that
an N-port network may have.
Examples of matrices reflecting reciprocal
and symmetrical properties
1. • 18 6
[.𝑍  ] = [ 6 9 ] Reciprocal but not symmetrical

0.0692 − 0.0615
 
2. [ .𝑌 ] =
[ − 0.0615 0.0769 ] Reciprocal but not symmetrical

99 20
•  
3. .[ 𝑍 ] = 101
20
101
[ −
101
99
101
] Reciprocal but not symmetrical

0.05 − 0.05
 
4. . [ 𝑌 ] =
[ − 0.05 0.05 ] Reciprocal & symmetrical
 Example 1:
Find the Z-parameters of the two-port network
shown below
Solution:
(a). Z11 can be found as the input  
𝑉1
impedance at port 1 when port 2 is
open circuited
𝑍 11 = |
𝐼 1 𝐼 =0
=𝑍 𝐴 +𝑍 𝐶
2

(b). The transfer impedance can be

𝑉1 1 𝑍𝐶 𝑉 2
 
found measuring the open-circuit
voltage at port 1 when a current I2 is
applied at port 2. (by voltage
division)
𝑍 12=
| =
𝐼 2 𝐼 =0 𝐼 2 𝑍 𝐵+𝑍 𝐶
1
=𝑍 𝐶

𝑉2 1 𝑍𝐶 𝑉 1
 
(c). Z21 is found as
(This proves that the network is
reciprocal)
𝑍 21=
 
| =
𝐼 1 𝐼 =0 𝐼 1 𝑍 𝐴 +𝑍 𝐶
𝑉2
2
=𝑍 𝐶
(d). Z22 is found as 𝑍 22=
𝐼2 | 𝐼 1=0
=𝑍 𝐵+𝑍 𝐶
 Example 2:
Derive the [Z] and [Y] matrices for the two-
port network shown
Solution:
(a). Find Z11
𝑍 𝐴 (𝑍 𝐴 + 𝑍 𝐵 )
 

𝑉1
𝐼1
[
𝑍 𝐴 +𝑍 𝐴 +𝑍 𝐵 ] 𝑍 𝐴 (𝑍 𝐴 + 𝑍 𝐵)
𝑍 11 =
𝐼1 | 𝐼 2 =0
=
𝐼1
=
2 𝑍 𝐴 +𝑍 𝐵
=𝑍 22 (by   symmetry)

(b).  Find Z21 𝑍𝐴

𝑉2
𝐼 1 𝑍 11
( 𝑍 𝐴+ 𝑍𝐵 ) 𝑍 𝐴 (𝑍 𝐴 + 𝑍 𝐵 ) 𝑍𝐴
𝑍 21=
𝐼1 | 𝐼 2=0
=
𝐼1
=
[ 2 𝑍 𝐴+ 𝑍𝐵 ](𝑍 𝐴+ 𝑍𝐵 )
  𝑍 2𝐴
𝑍 21= =𝑍 12(by   reciprocity)
2 𝑍 𝐴 +𝑍 𝐵

𝐼1 𝐼1 𝑍 𝐴+ 𝑍 𝐵
 
𝑌 11 =
𝑉1 | =
𝑍 𝐴 𝑍𝐵
=
𝑍 𝐴 𝑍𝐵
=𝑌 22 (by   symmetry)

(c). Find Y11

𝑉 2=0
𝐼1
(
𝑍 𝐴+ 𝑍 𝐵 )
Example 2: Solution cont’d
(d). Find Y21

  𝑉1
−
𝐼2 𝑍𝐵 1
𝑌 21=
| 2
=
𝑉 1 𝑉 =0 𝑉 1
=− =𝑌 12 (by   reciprocity)
𝑍𝐵
The answers can be checked by:

[ 𝑍 ] [ 𝑌 ] =[ 𝑈 ]
 The ABCD Matrix
 In practice, many microwave networks consist of a cascade
connection of two or more two-port networks. In this case, it is
convenient to define a 2x2 transmission, or ABCD, matrix for
each two-port network.
 The ABCD matrix of the cascade connection of two or more two-
port networks can be easily found by multiplying the ABCD
matrices of the individual two-ports.
 The ABCD matrix is defined for the two-port network in terms of
the total voltages and currents

 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 2+ 𝐵 𝐼 2
1
 𝐼 =𝐶 𝑉 + 𝐷 𝐼
1 2 2

 
𝑉1 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉2
[ ] [ ][ ]
𝐼1
=
𝐶 𝐷 𝐼2
Cascade connection of two two-port networks

 𝑉 𝐴 1 𝐵1 𝑉 2  𝑉 𝐴 2 𝐵2 𝑉 3
[ ][ 1
𝐼1
=
][ ]
𝐶1 𝐷 1 𝐼 2
 Substituting,
[ ][
𝐼2
=2
][ ]
𝐶2 𝐷 2 𝐼 3

 
𝑉1 𝐴 1 𝐵1 𝐴 2 𝐵2 𝑉 3
[ ][
𝐼1
=
][ ][ ]
𝐶1 𝐷1 𝐶 2 𝐷 2 𝐼 3
 Cascaded network
I1a I2a I1b I2b

V1a a V2a V1b b V2b

 𝑉 1 𝑎 𝐴 𝐵𝑎 𝑉 2 𝑎  𝑉 1 𝑏 𝐴 𝑏 𝐵𝑏 𝑉 2 𝑏
[ ][ 𝐼 1𝑎
= 𝑎
][ ]
𝐶 𝑎 𝐷 𝑎 − 𝐼2 𝑎 [ ][
𝐼 1𝑏
=
][ ]
𝐶 𝑏 𝐷 𝑏 − 𝐼2 𝑏
However V2a=V1b and –I2a=I1b then
The main use of ABCD matrices are
 𝑉 1 𝑎 𝐴 𝑎 𝐵𝑎 𝐴 𝑏 𝐵 𝑏 𝑉 2 𝑏
[ ][
𝐼 1𝑎
=
][
𝐶 𝑎 𝐷 𝑎 𝐶 𝑏 𝐷 𝑏 − 𝐼 2𝑏 ][ ] for chaining circuit elements together

Or just convert to one matrix Where

 𝑉 1 𝑎 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉 2𝑏  𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝑎 𝐵𝑎 𝐴 𝑏 𝐵𝑏
[ ] [ ][ ]
𝐼 1𝑎
=
𝐶 𝐷 − 𝐼2𝑏 [𝐶 ] [ 𝐷
=
𝐶 𝑎 𝐷𝑎 𝐶 𝑏 𝐷𝑏 ][ ]
 Determination of ABCD parameters
𝑉  1= 𝐴 𝑉 2 − 𝐵 𝐼 2  𝐼
1 =𝐶 𝑉 2 − 𝐷 𝐼 2

Since A is independent of B, to determine A put I2 equal to zero and

determine the voltage gain V1/V2=A of the circuit. In this case port
2 must be open circuit.

𝑉1
 
𝐴=
𝑉1
|
𝑉 2 𝐼 =0
for port 2 open circuit
2
 
𝐵=
|
− 𝐼 2 𝑉 =0 for port 2 short circuit
2

𝐼1
 
𝐶=
𝐼1
|
𝑉 2 𝐼 =0 2
for port 2 open circuit
 
𝐷= |
− 𝐼 2 𝑉 =0
2
for port 2 short circuit

If the network is reciprocal, Z12=Z21, and AD-BC=1.

 ABCD matrix for series impedance
I1 I2
Z
V1 V2

𝑉1 𝑉1
 
𝐴=
|
𝑉 2 𝐼 =0
for port 2 open circuit
2
 
𝐵=
|
− 𝐼 2 𝑉 =0 2
for port 2 short circuit

V1= V2 hence A=1 V1= - I2 Z hence B= Z

𝐼1
 
𝐶=
𝐼1
|
𝑉 2 𝐼 =0
for port 2 open circuit
2
 
𝐷= |
− 𝐼 2 𝑉 =0 2
for port 2 short circuit

I1 = - I2 = 0 hence C= 0 I1 = - I2 hence D= 1

 1𝑍
The full ABCD matrix can be written
[ ]
0 1
 ABCD for T impedance network
I1 I2
Z1 Z2

V1

Z3
V2

𝑉1
 
𝐴= |
𝑉 2 𝐼 =0
2
for port 2 open circuit
Therefore

then   𝑍3   𝑉 1 𝑍 1+ 𝑍 3 𝑍1
𝑉 2= 𝑉1 𝐴= = =1+
𝑍 1+𝑍 3 𝑉2 𝑍3 𝑍3
 …cont’d
  𝑉1
𝐵= |
− 𝐼 2 𝑉 =0 2
for port 2 short circuit Z1 I2

Z2 VZ2
Solving for voltage in Z2 Z3

  𝑍2 𝑍3
𝑍 2+ 𝑍 3
𝑉𝑍= 𝑉1
2
𝑍 2 𝑍3
𝑍1+ Hence
𝑍 2+ 𝑍 3
  𝑉1 𝑍1 𝑍2
𝐵= =𝑍 2 + 𝑍 1+
But 𝑉  𝑍 =− 𝐼 2 𝑍 2 − 𝐼2 𝑍3
2
 …cont’d
Z1
I1 I2
𝐼1
 
𝐶=
|
𝑉 2 𝐼 =0
for port 2 open circuit
2
Z3 V2

Analysis

−
  𝐼 =𝐼
2 1
Therefore

𝐼1 1
𝑉  2=− 𝐼 2 𝑍 3=𝐼 1 𝑍 3  
𝐶= =
𝑉 2 𝑍3
 …cont’d
𝐼1
 
𝐷=
− 𝐼 2 𝑉 =0 | 2
for port 2 short circuit
I1
Z1 I2

Z2 V Z2
Z3
I1 is divided into Z2 and Z3, thus

  − 𝑍3
𝐼2 = 𝐼1
𝑍 2 +𝑍 3 Full matrix

Hence  
𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2
 
𝐷=
𝐼1
− 𝐼2
=1+
𝑍2
𝑍3
[ 1+
𝑍3
1
𝑍3
𝑍 1+ 𝑍 2 +

1+
𝑍2
𝑍3
𝑍3

]
 Relationship to Impedance Matrix
• The impedance parameters of a network can be easily converted
to ABCD parameters.
• From the definition of the ABCD parameters, and from the
defining relation for the Z parameters for a two-port network

𝑉  1=𝐼 1 𝑍 11 − 𝐼 2 𝑍 12 𝑉  2=𝐼 1 𝑍 21 − 𝐼 2 𝑍 22
ABCD parameters of some useful two-port networks
Z
 1𝑍
Series impedance [ ]
0 1

 1 0
Z Shunt impedance
[ ]
1
𝑍
1

  𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2

[ 1+ 𝑍 1+ 𝑍 2 +

]
Z1 Z2 𝑍3 𝑍3
1 𝑍2
Z3 T-network 1+
𝑍3 𝑍3

Z3
  𝑍3
Z1 Z2 p-network
[ 1 1
+ +
1+

𝑍3
𝑍2

𝑍1 𝑍 2 𝑍 1 𝑍 2
1+
𝑍3

𝑍3
𝑍1
]
 The Scattering Matrix
 A practical problem exists when trying to measure voltages and
currents at microwave frequencies because direct
measurements usually involve the magnitude (inferred from
power) and phase of a wave travelling in a given direction or of
a standing wave.
 A representation more in accord with direct measurements, and
with the ideas of incident, reflected, and transmitted waves, is
given by the scattering matrix.
 While the impedance and admittance matrices relate total
voltages and currents at the ports, the scattering matrix relates
the voltage waves incident on the ports to those reflection from
the ports.
 Usually we use Y, Z, H or ABCD parameters to describe a
linear two port network. These parameters require us to open or
short a network to find the parameters.
 ….cont’d
 At microwave frequencies it is difficult to have a proper short or
open circuit, there are parasitic inductance and capacitance in most
instances. Open/short condition leads to standing wave, can cause
oscillation and destruction of device.
 For non-TEM propagation mode, it is not possible to measure
voltage and current. We can only measure power from E and H
fields.
 Hence a new set of parameters (S) is needed which
 Do not need open/short condition and do not cause
standing wave.
 Relates to incident and reflected power waves, instead
of voltage and current.
 Can cascade S-parameters of multiple devices to
predict system performance (similar to ABCD
parameters).
 The Scattering Matrix
Consider the N-port network

Vn+ , In+ is the amplitude of the voltage and current wave incident on port n.
Vn- , In- is the amplitude of the voltage and current wave reflected from port n.
The scattering matrix or [S] matrix, is defined in relation to these
incident and reflected voltage wave as:

•𝑉  −1𝑆 11 𝑆 12 . . . 𝑆1𝑁

[ ][ ]
−
𝑉2 𝑆 21 . . . . .
. = . . . . . . ¿
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
𝑉𝑛
−
𝑆𝑁 1 . . . . 𝑆 𝑁𝑁

or [ 𝑉 − ] =[ 𝑆 ] ¿
 

A specific element of the [S] matrix can be determined as:

𝑆 𝑖𝑗 =¿ ¿
 
 Find the admittance matrix elements

Vi -
Sij = + Vector network analyzer
Vj
Vk+ =0 for k¹ j (directly measure S-parameters)

Sij is found by driving port j with an

incident wave of voltage V+ , and
measuring the reflected wave
amplitude V-, coming out of port i.
The incident waves on all ports
except the jth port are set to zero,
which means that all ports should
be terminated in matched loads to
avoid reflections.
 Example:
Find the scattering parameters of the 3 dB
attenuator with a 50 Ω Characteristic
impedance.
Solution:
(a). S11 can be found as the reflection coefficient seen at port 1 when port 2 is
terminated in a matched load (Zo = 50Ω)

𝑆 11 =¿ ¿
 

where:   ( 141.8 )( 8.56+50 )

Hence,
𝑍 𝑖𝑛 =8.56+
[141.8+ ( 8.56+50 ) ]
=50 Ω

𝑆  11 =0=𝑆 22 (by   symmetry)

(b). S21 can be found by applying an incident wave at port 1, V1+, and measuring
the out coming wave at port 2, V2-. This is equivalent to the transmission
coefficient from port 1 to port 2.

𝑆 21=¿¿
 

From the fact that S11 = S22 = 0, we know that V1- = 0 when port 2 is terminated
in Z0 = 50 Ω, and that V2+ = 0. In this case, V1+ = V1 and V2- = V2.
Example: solution cont’d.
(b). By applying a voltage V1 at port 1 and using voltage division twice, we find
V2- = V2 as the voltage across the 50 Ω load resistor at port 2.
  − 41.44 50
𝑉 2 =𝑉 2 =𝑉 1 ( )(
41.44+8.56 50+8.56 )
=0.707 𝑉 1

where:   ( 141.8 ) (58.56 )

41.44=
( 141.8+58.56 )
It is the resistance of the parallel combination of the 50 Ω load and the 8.56 Ω
resistor with the 141.8 Ω resistor.
Thus,
𝑆  If12the
=𝑆input
21 =0.707
power is:  

Then the output power is:

 
¿¿¿
|𝑉 −
|
2
2

=¿ ¿ ¿
2
Which is one-half (-3 dB) of the 𝑍
input power.
0
Conversion between Scattering and impedance parameters
For a N-ports network, assuming every port has the same
impedance and set Z0n = 1, we have
Vn =Vn+ +Vn-
I n =I n+ - I n- =Vn+ - Vn-

[Z ][I ] =[Z ][V + ] - [Z ][V - ] =[V ] =[V + ]+[V - ]

Þ ([Z ] +[U ])[V - ] =([Z ] - [U ])[V + ]
Þ [S] =[V - ][V + ]- 1 =([Z ] +[U ])- 1 ([Z ] - [U ])

1  0
Identity matrix [U ] =[    ]
0  1
 Reciprocal and Lossless Networks
 Scattering matrix for reciprocal networks is symmetric
[ 𝑆 ] =[ 𝑆 ]𝑡
 Scattering matrix for lossless networks is unitary
 𝑛 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑘=1
𝑆 𝑆 ∗
∑ 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑗 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
= }
That is, for unitary matrix,

[ 𝑆 ]𝑡 [ 𝑆 ] ∗=[ 𝑈 ]
𝑡 −1
[  𝑆 ] ∗= {[ 𝑆 ] }
 Example 1:
A two-port network is known to have the following
scattering matrix

(a). Determine if the network is reciprocal and lossless.

(b). If port 2 is terminated with a matched load, what is
the return loss seen at port 1?
(c). If port 2 is terminated with a short circuit, what is
the return loss seen at port1?
 Solution
(a1). Because [S] is not symmetric, the network is not reciprocal.
(a2). To be lossless, the scattering parameters must satisfy:
(For i = j)

Taking the first

𝑛
column (i = 1),
  ∗ 2 2 2 2
𝑆 𝑆 = 𝑆
∑ 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑖 | 11| | 21|
+ 𝑆 = ( 0.15 ) + ( 0.85 ) =0.745
𝑘=1

Since it is not equal to 1, then the network is not lossless!

(b). When port 2 is terminated with a matched load, the reflection
𝑆  11 =Γ
coefficient seen at port
=0.151 is

So the return𝑅𝐿=−
  loss is20 log|Γ |=−20 log ( 0.15 ) =16.5   dB

(c). When port 2 is terminated with a short circuit, the reflection

coefficient seen at port 1 can be found as follows:
−
 𝑉 +¿=− 𝑉 2¿
For a short circuit
2
at port 2:
Example 1: Solution
(c). From the scattering matrix:

The given scattering matrix has 2 x 2 dimension, then

−
+¿ − 𝑆 𝑉      eq . 1 ¿
+ ¿ = 𝑆 11 𝑉 1 12 2
¿
 𝑉 − = 𝑆 +¿ +𝑆 12 𝑉 ¿
1 11 𝑉 1
2

−
+¿ −𝑆 𝑉     eq .2 ¿
+ ¿ = 𝑆 21 𝑉 22 2
¿
 𝑉 − = 𝑆 +¿+𝑆 22 𝑉 1
¿
2 21 𝑉 1
2

From eq.2:
𝑆21 +¿¿
  −
𝑉2= 𝑉1
1+𝑆using
Dividing eq. 1 by V1+ and 22 the above result gives

  = 𝑉−
1
Γ
+¿ 𝑆12 𝑆 21 ( 0.85∠ − 4 5 𝑜 )( 0.85∠ 4 5𝑜 )
𝑉 1 = 𝑆11 − = 0.15− =− 0.452 ¿
1+𝑆 22 1+0.2
Example 1: Solution
(c). So the Return Loss is
𝑅𝐿=−20log
  |Γ |=−20log ( 0.452 )=6.9 dB
An important point to understand about scattering
parameters is that reflection coefficient looking into port n
is not equal to Snn unless all other ports are matched (as
illustrated in the previous example).
Similarly,, the transmission coefficient from port m to port n
is not equal to Snm unless all other ports are matched.
Changing the terminations or excitations of a network does
not change its scattering parameters, but may change the
reflection coefficient at a given port, or the transmission
coefficient between two ports.
 Example 2:
Consider two two-port networks with individual scattering
matrices [SA] and [SB]. Show that the overall S21 parameter
of the cascade of these networks is given by
𝐴 𝐵
  𝑆 21 𝑆 21
𝑆 21= 𝐴 𝐵
1− 𝑆 22 𝑆11
Solution
 𝑉 −
For [SA]: [ ] 𝐴
1 𝐴
=[ 𝑆 ] [ 𝑉 1 𝐵 ]
+¿ ¿

𝐵
For [SB]:  
[ ]
−
𝑉2
= [ 𝑆
𝐵
]¿
For overall network:  𝑉 −

[ ]
𝑉
1
−
2
=[ 𝑆 ] ¿

Find S21:
𝑆 21=¿¿
 

From [SB]:
𝐵 𝐵
𝐵=𝑆
  11 𝐴 +𝑆 𝑉
12 2
+¿¿
𝑉  −2 =𝑆21𝐵 𝐴 +𝑆 𝐵22 𝑉 +¿¿
2
For V2+ =0:
− 𝐵   𝑉 −2
𝐵=𝑆 𝐵 𝑉
  =𝑆 𝐴 𝐴=
  11 𝐴 2 21 𝐵
𝑆 21
Example 2: Solution
From [SA]:
𝐴
𝐴 22 𝐵¿
 𝐴=𝑆 21 𝑉 +¿+𝑆
1

Substituting B will give:

𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 +¿ +𝑆22 𝑆11 𝐴 ¿
 𝐴=𝑆 21 𝑉 1

Substituting A
−
𝑉
 𝑉 −
2
=𝑆
𝐴
𝑉1
𝐴
+¿+ 𝑆22 𝑆𝐵
11
( )
𝑆
𝐵
2

21
¿

𝐵 21
𝑆 21

Thus,
𝑉−
  21 =
𝑆
2
𝐴 𝐵
+¿ 𝑆21 𝑆 21
𝑉 1 = 𝐴
¿
1 − 𝑆22 𝑆𝐵
11
 Microwave Network Analysis

The ABCD Matrix –

Conversions Between Two-Port Network Parameters