D.C.

STANDARDS
&
MEASUREMENTS
Ideal reference standard for any purpose
must have following capabilities :

- Reproducibility

- Stable for long & short periods

- Immune To outside influences

- Rugged and easily transportable

- Easy to use

- Free of Toxic and harmful materials

 TWO BASIC D.C. STANDARDS

1. RESISTANCE STANDARD

2. VOLTAGE STANDARD

Based on these two Standards other D.C.

Standards are derived.
 RESISTANCE STANDARDS

Precision resistors are usually made of Managing. To

protect from environment they are normally sealed.
They are oil immersed to give good thermal stability.
Oil also helps to dissipate the heat developed in the
resistor by current through it. The oil also increases
the heat capacity of the Resistor increasing the
current it can carry temporarily without over heating.

In general standard resistors of 1 ohm & less are of 4

terminal type. Higher value Resistors are of 2
terminal type.
TYPICAL METHODS OF RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. AMMETER – VOLTMETER METHOD

2. DIRECT READING OHM METER

For which the scale is directly graduated in ohm.

3. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

In certain forms of wheatstone bridge the dial that

adjusts the balance is calibrated to read directly the
value of the unknown Resistor.
 D.C. VOLTAGE STANDARDS

Two Types of D.C. Voltage Standards

1. Saturated Cadmium Cell

(Weston Cell) which are in use for more that a
century.

2. Newly invented solid state reference standards

which have come up in last two decades.
 Standard Cells

They are electrochemical systems

composed of two dissimilar electrodes
immersed in an electrolytic solution.
They exhibit good permanency, process
low emf-temperature coefficient, have
low internal resistance.
Weston saturated standard cell :

Attributes :
- Excellent short term & long term stability
Limitations :

- Extremely sensitive to temperature changes

- Fragile-made of glass, so careful handling.
- Contain Toxic material, due care while handling &
storing.
- Get completely ruined, if short circuited
accidentally.
- Highly sensitive to mechanical shocks & vibrations
- Output value is low, i.e. 1.0186 volts, low voltage,
hence thermal emf’s present in calibration circuits
can introduce considerable errors.
To overcome these limitations of a conventional
standard cell, solid staste reference standards are
becoming popular.

Solid state reference standards attributes :

- Typical accuracy of the order of 0.5 ppm / deg.C.
- Low Temperature coefficient.
- Miniature in size, hence can be maintained in small
ovens.
- Do not get damaged due to accidental short circuits.
- Mechanically rugged and insensitive to mechanical
shocks & vibrations.
- Can operate on relatively high voltage thereby
reducing effect of thermal voltages.
 CURRENT CALIBRATION

The calibration of Direct current is accomplished by

using calibrated precision by using calibrated
precision resistors and calibrated precision voltmeter
using ohms law. The calibrated precision resistance
is connected is series with the current meter under
calibration.

The current is passed through the circuit & the

voltage drop across the calibrated resistor is
measured.
The current is calculated by the formula :

I = V/R

The same current also flows through unit under

calibration.