MPFP1023 Philosophical

ideas in Education
Lecture (10)
Dr. Subadrah Nair.
Faculty of Education and Liberal Studies
City University, Petaling Jaya.  
Confucius
 Confucius
• The life of Confucius begins with a man named K’ung Ch’iu who was
born in north eastern China in 551 BC. It was a time when China was
being sliced into feudal states by the warlord “princes” who raised
armies, waged battles, oppressed slave labourers, and heavily taxed
subjects. Ch’iu was a self-educated youth, raised by a poor family in
the state of Lu. In his teenage years, he had an administrative position
with the local noble, managing his agricultural accounts. It was here
that Ch’iu started developing a passion for ethical philosophy. 
• As an adult, Ch’iu left his homeland and began wandering from state
to state in China. His ambition was to share his philosophy with the
ruling princes, believing that these powerful leaders had an obligation
to lead their people with virtue. Rather than leading for power,
control, money, or ego, the princes of China must understand their
higher purpose, which was to do “right” and lead by selfless example. 
• Over the years, Ch’iu was (understandably) rejected by the
entrenched warlords. However, during his travels, Ch’iu
(understandably) won the hearts of the oppressed people. He
ultimately returned to his home state and started an informal school
where he taught his principles to a growing number of followers. He
taught in areas of ethics, leadership, history, psychology, and the arts.
His strategy was to train-up young men in virtuous education and
then watch them take positions in government throughout China,
where they could have a true impact on transforming the land. 
• As a teacher, Ch’iu became known as K’ung Fu-tzu (K’ung the Master).
He trained many “disciples” over the years, and helped install many of
them in state government positions. The Master viewed political
systems as the broadest way to apply his transformational ethics
across China. By the time he died in 478 BC, K’ung Fu-tzu was
considered, alongside Buddha, as one of the two greatest ethical
minds in the East. 
• As a teacher, Ch’iu became known as K’ung Fu-tzu (K’ung the Master).
He trained many “disciples” over the years, and helped install many of
them in state government positions. The Master viewed political
systems as the broadest way to apply his transformational ethics
across China. By the time he died in 478 BC, K’ung Fu-tzu was
considered, alongside Buddha, as one of the two greatest ethical
minds in the East. 
• At a time when Aeschylus and Socrates were spawning the ethical
philosophies of the Greek world, and Haggai and Zechariah were
encouraging the Jews to return to Jerusalem, K’ung Fu-tzu (later
Latinized as “Confucius”) was popularizing a philosophy of ethical
humanism that would have a huge impact on the social, political, and
philosophical structure of China for years to come.
Contribution to education
• Building upon the wisdom of ancient Chinese sages, Confucius
expounded a set of political and moral doctrines; and social and
political ethics based on family, kinship, loyalty, righteousness and
what may be termed as the fundamental ideas of humanity.
•  Zi Gong (a disciple of Confucius) asked: “Is there any one word that could
guide a person throughout life?” The Master replied: “How about ‘shu’
[reciprocity]: never impose on others what you would not choose for
yourself?”. This is often referred as the silver or golden rule of Confucianism.
• ii. Confucianism is mostly indifferent to big metaphysical and physical
mysteries but has a more practical approach. As Confucius says, “We do not
yet know how to serve man, how can we know about serving the spirits? We
don’t know yet about life, how can we know about death?“
• iii. It lays emphasis on belief in and encouragement of humanity.
• iv. It is more like a moral guide for different strata of society, government and
its organizations.
• v. It is comfortable with hierarchy but values and respects each
building block of society.
• vi. It encourages collectivism and strengthening social bonds.
• vii. It stresses on respect for family, age and tradition.
• viii. It focuses on education and meritocracy.
• ix. It believes on superiority of personal exemplification over explicit
rules of behavior.
Golden age of ancient China
• , Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism as its official ideology and the
Five Classics were part of the state sponsored curriculum. The Five
Classics, that in many ways form the essence of Confucianism, are:-
• . Classic of History 
• Classic of Poetry
• Classic of Rites 
• Classic of Changes 
•  Spring and Autumn Annals
Confucius taught five virtues a gentleman
should practice every day to live a healthy,
harmonious life.

• 1.Ren, which means humaneness or benevolence.

• 2. Yi, which means righteousness and honesty.
• 3. Li, which means proper behaviour and propriety.
• 4. Zhi, which means knowledge or wisdom.
• 5. Xin, which means sincerity and fidelity.
• The aristocrats were trained in civil and military education based on the six
arts: archery, rites, music, arithmetic, charioting and calligraphy.
• Confucius was not in favour of this biased system and was among the few
who set up private academies for the rich and the poor alike. He famously
said “My teachings are for everyone, without distinction“.
• Confucius, the main objective of being an educator was to teach people to
live with integrity. Through his teachings, he strove to resurrect the
traditional values of benevolence/ goodwill, propriety/correct moral
behaviour and ritual in Chinese society.
• 
• Confucius’ Beliefs, Philosophy and Teachings
• During the sixth century B.C., competing Chinese states undermined the
authority of the Chou Empire, which had held supreme rule for over 500
years. Traditional Chinese principles began to deteriorate, resulting in a
period of moral decline. Confucius recognized an opportunity — and an
obligation — to reinforce the societal values of compassion and tradition.
• The Golden Rule
• Confucius’ social philosophy was based primarily on the principle of "ren" or
"loving others" while exercising self-discipline. He believed that ren could be
put into action using the Golden Rule, "What you do not wish for yourself,
do not do to others." (Lunyu 12.2, 6.30).
• Confucius also had a great impact on Chinese political history. In
Confucian thought the state is seen more as a tool to bring out the
best in people. Great emphasis is given to people’s faith in their rulers
and the rulers must keep working to maintain the faith people have in
them. The three requisites for the government are stated as thus in
decreasing order of priority:-
• 1. Confidence of the people in their ruler
• 2. Sufficiency of Food
• 3. Sufficiency of Military Power
• Confucius’ philosophy of education focused on the "Six Arts": archery,
calligraphy, computation, music, chariot-driving and ritual. To
Confucius, the main objective of being an educator was to teach
people to live with integrity. Through his teachings, he strove to
resurrect the traditional values of benevolence/ goodwill,
propriety/correct moral behaviour and ritual in Chinese society.
Meritocracy,
• Meritocracy
• One major influence of Confucian teachings was the concept of meritocracy,
where a person’s qualities determine his position in society rather than his
inherited status.
• These ideas led to the introduction of the Imperial Examination System in
China, which allowed anyone who had passed it to become a Government
Officer.
• Most scholars consider this as the first known example of administrative
meritocracy, based on a civil service examination irrespective of people’s
birth or background. The ideas would be implemented almost two millennia
later in colonial British India and later in other parts of the world.
Social harmony
• Social harmony
• Confucius laid a lot of emphasis on social harmony, which to
date forms the basis for Chinese society. Confucian thought says
that every individual has a place in the social order and they need to
be respected for it. This respect has to be mutual, so while the wife
has to respect her husband, the husband needs to be benevolent
towards her. The young must show respect for their elders; and they
in turn must be kind to them and guide them. The ruler must be
responsible and humane towards his subjects
• In China the term San Jiao (three teachings) can be traced back to the
prominent scholars of sixth Century AD. It is a common term referring
to philosophies of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism; which have
had the greatest impact on the Chinese Civilization.
Confucius
Mencius: His life as an educator
372-289 B.C.)
• Better known in China as “Master Meng” (Chinese: Mengzi),
Mencius was a fourth-century BCE Chinese thinker whose
importance in the Confucian tradition is second only to that
of Confucius himself.
• Mencius, whose first name was Ke, was a native of Zou (a district in
Shandong province which still bears the same name), in the land of
Lu. He was born in 372 B.C. and died in 289 B.C. at the age of 83. He
was descended from Men Sun, a member of the nobility of the Lu
kingdom. His father died young and his mother made great sacrifices
to educate him, moving house on three occasions to offer her son a
more propitious learning environment, and severing the thread on
the shuttle of her loom whenever Mencius neglected his lessons to
make him understand the need to persevere.
• Mencius dedicated most of his life to teaching. On reaching
adulthood, he spent more than twenty years travelling around the
various kingdoms with his disciples to spread his political ideals. His
reputation was such that ‘dozens of chariots and hundreds of people’
are said to have followed him.
• Everywhere he was greeted with respect. In the twilight of his life, he
returned to his homeland to divide his time between education and
writing. ‘Transmitting the gifts received from Heaven’ was a great joy
to him. He is deservedly regarded as one of the great figures of
education of his time.
• In the last few years of his life, Mencius gathered pupils around him,
put down his 2 thoughts in writing and, with the help of Wan Zhang,
Gong Sunchou and other disciples, compiled the anthology which
bears his name and which relates his conversations with the feudal
princes and his replies and arguments on various points of doctrine.
As well as setting out Mencius’s educational work and ideas, this work
conveys a striking picture of the intellectual ferment of the time.
• In many ways, he played the role of St. Paul to Confucius’ Jesus,
interpreting the thought of the master for subsequent ages while
simultaneously impressing Confucius’ ideas with his own
philosophical stamp. He is most famous for his theory of human
nature, according to which all human beings share an innate
goodness that either can be cultivated through education and self-
discipline or squandered through neglect and negative influences, but
never lost altogether.
• The other major source of information about Mencius' life is the
biography found in the Shiji(Records of the Grand Historian) of Sima
Qian (c. 145-90 BCE), which states that he was a native of Zou (Tsou),
a small state near Confucius' home state of Lu in the Shandong
peninsula of north eastern China. He is said to have studied with
Confucius' grandson, Zisi (Tzu-ssu), although most modern scholars
doubt this.
• He also is thought to have become a minister of the state of Qi (Ch'i),
which also was famous as the home of the Jixia (Chi-hsia) Academy.
The Jixia Academy was a kind of early Chinese "think tank" sponsored
the ruler of Qi that produced, among other thinkers, Mencius' later
opponent Xunzi (Hsun-tzu, 310-220 BCE).
• Mencius was born in a period of Chinese history known as the
Warring States (403-221 BCE), during which various states competed
violently against one another for mastery of all of China, which once
was unified under the Zhou dynasty until its collapse.
• The common intellectual and political problem that Warring States
thinkers hoped to solve was the problem of China's unification. While
no early Chinese thinker questioned the need for autocratic rule as an
instrument of unification, philosophers differed on whether and how
the ruler ought to consider moral limitations on power, traditional
religious ceremonies and obligations, and the welfare of his subjects.
• Mencius' philosophical concerns, while scattered across the seven
books of the text that bears his name, demonstrate a high degree of
consistency unusual in early Chinese philosophical writing. They can
be categorized into four groups:
• Theodicy
• Government
• Human Nature
• Self-Cultivation
Theodicy

• Theodicy
Again, as with Confucius, so too with Mencius. From late Zhou
tradition, Mencius inherited a great many religious sensibilities,
including theistic ones. For the early Chinese (16th century BCE), the
world was controlled by an all-powerful deity, "The Lord on High"
(Shangdi)
Government

• Government
Mencius places on the satisfaction of the people as an indicator of the
ruler's moral right to power, and on the responsibility of morally-
minded ministers to depose an unworthy ruler. In a dialogue with King
Xuan of Qi (r. 319-301 BCE), Mencius says:
• The people are to be valued most, the altars of the grain and the land
[traditional symbols of the vitality of the state] next, the ruler least.
Hence winning the favour of the common people you become
Emperor…. (7B14)
Human Nature

• Human Nature
Mencius is famous for claiming that human nature (renxing) is good.
As with most reductions of philosophical positions to bumper-sticker
slogans, this statement over simplifies Mencius' position. In the text,
Mencius takes a more careful route in order to arrive at this view. his
argument as having three elements: (1) a teleology/ purpose, (2) a
virtue theory, and (3) a moral psychology.
Self-Cultivation

• Self-Cultivation
Having made a teleological argument from the inborn potential of
human beings to the presumption of virtues that can be developed,
Mencius then offers his sketch of moral psychology - the structures
within the human person that make such potential identifiable and
such development possible.
Purpose of Education
• Mencius held that the purpose of education was to cultivate good
people who knew their station in society. He took up the concept of
ren (humanity or benevolence) so dear to Confucius, feeling that the
unification of China called for virtuous leaders like the sovereigns of
former times.
• According to Mencius, the first essential was to make sure that old
people lacked neither silk to clothe themselves nor meat to feed
themselves, and that the people suffered neither hunger nor cold.
Only then would schools be opened and the population educated.
• Only an education provided in such conditions could be considered
sound. As to its purpose, it must be to ‘teach sons their duties
towards their fathers and younger ones their duties to their elders’.
That meant continual reference to the great principles of respect for
one’s father and mother and obedience to one’s elder brothers and
superiors, the explanation of these principles being the 3
fundamental aim of education. That was the cornerstone of Mencius’
moral philosophy.
• Mencius’ view of providing the people with enough to eat and to
protect them from the cold, and urging them to open schools
inculcating unremitting filial piety and love for one’s elder brothers
was that of a champion of the ethical principles that must govern
relationships between father and son, prince and minister, husband
and wife, older and younger persons and friends amongst themselves.
• This Confucianist concept of education exerted a profound influence
on Chinese feudal society
Function of Education
• Mencius believed that education played an important role in social
development. Its primary function was to develop the mind and
strengthen the cardinal virtues - benevolence, righteousness, respect
for rites and wisdom. He held that the human being was naturally
good, that virtues were innate and simply needed cultivating.
Whosoever cultivated them would become a good man, a sage or
even a saint. He who debased himself and failed to cultivate his
virtues or lost them could only become a scoundrel, a savage or even
a creature indistinguishable from an animal.
• Mencius advocated self-improvement, ‘seeking within oneself’, self-
examination. Aware as he was, however, of the very real obstacles
that might jeopardize the quest for knowledge and wisdom, he did
not deny the influence of external factors. He recognized the direct
effects of a good or bad harvest on the people’s morals. And he was
conscious of an environmental influence on learning. He affirmed that
everything that surrounds us, everything that makes up our
environment, has an effect on our character, our moral qualities and
our willpower, but such an influence, however great it may be, is not
decisive.
• While emphasizing self-improvement, Mencius attached great
importance to teaching dispensed by a master. Not only did he derive
immense pleasure from ‘transmitting the gifts received from Heaven’
and had numerous pupils throughout his life, but he repeatedly
stressed the merits of objective education and wrote a large number
of commentaries on teaching and moral education. He believed that
virtue required fathers and elder sons to see to the education of their
sons or younger brothers. Those who behaved badly had to be guided
along the right path, and those lacking in talent had to be educated.
That was a duty that a good father could not shirk.
The theory of ‘natural goodness’
• Mencius was part of the intellectual movement known as subjective
idealism. He saw the human heart, human nature and ‘heaven’ as
three indissociable elements. His thinking on education is thus
derived from his ‘doctrine of natural goodness’ (Xingshanlun).
• During the Warring States period, socio-economic development and
increasing friction between the classes offered a breeding-ground for
a variety of intellectual movements and inspired philosophers to
speculate on human nature, and on the relationship between human
nature and the outside world, in an attempt to resolve the social
problems of their times
• Mencius believed that the living environment of the legendary
sovereign Shun differed little from that of the savage living in the
mountains. That the sovereign had become a paragon of virtue was
due to his determination to improve himself. If the savage remained a
savage it was because he lived in a pernicious environment and did
not seek to improve himself, with the result that his natural goodness
had wasted away. Those who, living in an unpropitious environment,
‘had no self-respect and were filled with self-doubt’, whose ‘words
were disrespectful and unjust’, who let their natural goodness
(shanduan) wither away and took a path that led them away from
goodness.
• Those who breached the rules of correct moral conduct and disrupted
the order established by the feudal rulers were pronounced by
Mencius to be ‘not human beings’, to have lost their humanity and
become animals. Such was the substance of Mencius’ ‘doctrine of
natural goodness’, the theoretical basis for his concept of education.
Concept of Moral Education
• Mencius considered that character is something innate in every
human being. Nature, heaven (tian) and human beings form a whole.
The moral categories of ‘heaven’ are engraved on human nature, the
rules that govern heaven are rooted in human morality and the
human heart abounds in natural virtues. The ‘human heart’ and the
‘heart of heaven’ (tianxin) are correlated.
• Wealth or poverty are conferred on us by heavenly command and
beyond our control. What we must do, however, is ‘seek within
ourselves’, trying to develop and bring out the tendencies
• Preserving one’s natural goodness and controlling one’s desires.
Mencius thought that the best way of developing one’s good
tendencies was to resist domination by material desires. Those who
have few desires will lose little, if any, of their natural goodness.
Conversely, those who are racked with desires may preserve some
good traits but only very few. Mencius thus argued against cherishing
excessive desires for material things.
• Seeking within oneself. Mencius saw this as an important means of
moral self-improvement: if I treat someone with love and he remains
aloof, I must ask myself whether I am being generous enough; if
someone is placed under my authority but does not obey me, I must
ask myself if I am acting as wisely as I should; if I show consideration
to someone but he does not reciprocate, I must ask myself if I am
being sufficiently respectful. In short, whenever my conduct does not
produce the expected results, I must seek the reasons for this within
myself.
• Repenting and mending one’s ways. Mencius thought that those who
refuse to recognize their material desires and lose the virtue of
repentance are liable to commit reprehensible acts. These who act
wrongly but are ashamed of themselves can recover their propensity
for goodness. One must endeavour to correct any errors one has
committed and always take the merits of others as a model, trying to
better oneself and join others in seeking goodness.
• Seeking to recover lost qualities, preserving the benefits of the ‘night
air’ (yegi). Mencius saw regaining a pure heart as one of the keys to
moral self-improvement. It meant controlling one’s desires, examining
one’s conscience, repenting and correcting one’s faults. This is what
he had in mind when he spoke of preserving the benefits of the ‘night
air’: fortifying one’s soul, cultivating one’s natural goodness.
• Developing the natural nobility of the soul (haoran zhi qi). Human
beings must show strength of character and not go about their
business half-heartedly and apathetically. They must display energy
(qi) and not give way to despondency. In moral terms, they must
possess the noble mindedness that makes it possible to combat evil
with justice.
• Strengthening one’s resolve. This concept was crucial to Mencius’s
idea of moral education. The hardships and misfortunes by which all
are confronted in the course of a lifetime are conducive to meditation
on the vicissitudes of fate, and this is how one acquires the wisdom
(dehui) and thirst for knowledge (giuzhi) that will enable one to
understand the world and improve one’s ability to cope with it. The
human being must have passed a thousand tests before being truly
seasoned.
Teaching Methods
• Know to whom you are talking and adapt your teaching to each
individual’s aptitudes, adopting a lively and flexible approach that can
be varied, according to the pupil.
• • Lay down strict criteria and encourage personal initiative, setting the
aims and then leaving pupils to practise and learn their lessons by
themselves.
• Say profound things simply, speak knowledgeably and in great detail,
teaching pupils what they do not know on the basis of what they do
know. Use simple words to explain complex ideas and make sure that
your own knowledge is extensive, so that you are able to give detailed
explanations.
Base your arguments on analogy and use comparisons to explain
things; illustrate the most complex concepts with common examples
taken from everyday life. Mencius himself often used analogy to
support his arguments and simple images to clarify obscure points.
Likewise, he often used easily understandable comparisons to reply to
questions or to solve problems.
Thank You