Lecture - 1 Design Philosophies

N-W.F.P.
University of
Engineering and Technology
Peshawar
Steel Structures
CE-409
By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

chairciv@nwfpuet.edu.pk
1
Course Content
Design philosophies
Introduction to Steel Structures
Design of Welded connections
Design of Bolted connections
Design of Tension Members
Design of Compression Members
CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 2

Course Content
Design of Column Bases

Design of Beams
Design of Composite Beams
Design of Plate Girders

N-W.F.P. University of
Engineering and Technology
Peshawar
Lecture 01: Design Philosophies
By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

chairciv@nwfpuet.edu.pk
4
Topics to be covered
Design philosophies
Limit States
Design Considerations
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Design process

Design Philosophies
A general statement assuming safety in
engineering design is:
Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads ---(1)
In eq(1) it is essential that both sides are

evaluated for same conditions and units e.g.
compressive stress on soil should be
compared with bearing capacity of soil

Design Philosophies
Resistance of structures is composed of
its members which comes from
materials & X-section
Resistance, Capacity, and Strength are
somewhat synonym terms.
Terms like Demand, Stresses, and
Loads are used to express Effect of
applied loads.
Limit States
When particular loading reaches its
limit, failure is the assumed result, i.e.
the loading condition become failure
modes, such a condition is referred to
as limit state and it can be defined as
“A limit state is a condition beyond
which a structural system or a structural
component ceases to fulfill the function
for which it is designed.”

Limit States
 There are three broad classification of

limit states:
1. Strength limit states
2. Serviceability limit states
3. Special limit states

Limit States
Strength Limit States:
• Flexure • Fatigue
• Torsion • Settlement
• Shear • Bearing

Limit States
Serviceability Limit States:
• Cracking
• Excessive Deflection
• Buckling
• Stability

Limit States
Special Limit States:
Damage or collapse in extreme
earthquakes.
Structural effects of fire, explosions, or
vehicular collisions.

Limit States
Design Approach used must ensure
that the probability of a Limit State being
reached in the Design/Service Life of a
structure is within acceptable limits;
However, complete elimination of
probability of a Limit State being
achieved in the service life of a
structure is impractical as it would result
in uneconomical designs.

Design Considerations
• Structure and Structural Members should

have adequate strength, stiffness and
toughness to ensure proper functioning
during service life
• Reserve Strength should be available to
cater for:
– Occasional overloads and underestimation of loads
– Variability of strength of materials from those specified
– Variation in strength arising from quality of
workmanship and construction practices

Structural Design must provide adequate

margin of safety irrespective of Design
Method
Design Approach should take into account

the probability of occurrence of failure in
the design process
CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 15

An important goal in design is to prevent
limit state from being reached.
It is not economical to design a structure

so that none of its members or
components could ever fail. Thus, it is
necessary to establish an acceptable level
of risk or probability of failure.

Brittle behavior is to be avoided as it

will imply a sudden loss of load carrying
capacity when elastic limit is exceeded.
Reinforced concrete can be made
ductile by limiting the steel
reinforcement.

To determine the acceptable margin of

safety, opinion should be sought from
experience and qualified group of
engineers.
In steel design AISC manuals for ASD &
LRFD guidelines can be accepted as
reflection of such opinions.

Any design procedure require the
confidence of Engineer on the analysis of
load effects and strength of the materials.
The two distinct procedures employed by

designers are Allowable Stress Design
(ASD) & Load & Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD).

Allowable Stress Design
(ASD)
Safety in the design is obtained by

specifying, that the effect of the loads
should produce stresses that is a fraction
of the yield stress fy, say one half.

(ASD)
• This is equivalent to:
FOS = Resistance, R/ Effect of load, Q
= fy/0.5fy
=2

(ASD)
Since the specifications set limit on the
stresses, it became allowable stress
design (ASD).
It is mostly reasonable where stresses

are uniformly distributed over X-section
(such on determinate trusses, arches,
cables etc.)
(ASD)
Mathematical Description of A S D
 Rn

 Q i
Rn = Resistance or Strength of the component being designed
Φ = Resistance Factor or Strength Reduction Factor

 = Overload or Load Factors

 = Factor of Safety FS
Qi = Effect of applied loads
CE-411:Lecture No. 1 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 23

(ASD)
Mathematical Description of Allowable Stress Design
In ASD we check the adequacy of a design in terms of stresses
therefore design checks are cast in terms of stresses for
example if:
Mn = Nominal Flexural Strength of a Beam
M = Moment resulting from applied unfactored loads
FS = Factor of Safety
Mn Fy I / c M
 M 
FS FS I / c I /c
 Fy Fcr 
fb   Fb  or Fb  
 FS FS 

Section Modulus
 Section Modulus:
S ≥ effect of load/Allowable stress
= M/fb ------(ii)

ASD Drawbacks
 Implied in the ASD method is the

assumption that the stress in the
member is zero before any loads are
applied, i.e., no residual stresses exist
from forming the members.

Variation of Residual Stress
with Geometry
Material A has more Residual Stresses due to:

1. Non uniform cooling
2. Cutting a plate into smaller
pieces reveals the stresses

ASD Drawbacks
• ASD does not give reasonable measure

of strength, which is more fundamental
measure of resistance than is allowable
stress.
• Another drawback in ASD is that safety is
applied only to stress level. Loads are
considered to be deterministic (without
variation).

Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD)
To overcome the deficiencies of ASD,
the LRFD method is based on:
Strength of Materials
It consider the variability not only in
resistance but also in the effects of load.
It provides measure of safety related to
probability of failure.

Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD)
 Safety in the design is obtained by specifying that the reduced
Nominal Strength of a designed structure is less than the effect
of factored loads acting on the structure
 Rn  n  Qi
Rn = Resistance or Strength of the component being designed

Qi = Effect of Applied Loads
n = Takes into account ductility, redundancy and operational imp.
Φ = Resistance Factor or Strength Reduction Factor
 = Overload or Load Factors

= Factor of Safety

The role of ‘n’
Ductility: It implies a large capacity for inelastic

deformation without rupture
 Ductility will ensure

redistribution of load through
inelastic deformation.

The role of ‘n’
Redundancy:
1. A simply supported beam is a determinate
structure so it has no redundant actions.
2. A fixed beam is indeterminate by 2
degrees so it has two redundant actions.

Redundancy
Yielding will initiate at mid span due to maximum moment at mid span
with no Redistribution of load

Redundancy
Yielding will initiate at supports due to maximum moment at supports

Redundancy
Redistribution of load to mid span after yielding of section at supports

The role of ‘n’
Operational Importance:
A hospital and a school require more

conservative design than an ordinary
residential building.

Operational Importance
→ hospital
→ park
LRFD Advantages
LRFD accounts for both variability in

resistance and load.
 It achieves fairly uniform levels of
safety for different limit states.

LRFD Disadvantages
It’s disadvantage is change in design

philosophy from previous method.

Comparison of ASD and
LRFD Design Approaches
ASD combines Dead and Live Loads and
treats them in the same way
In LRFD different load factors are
assigned to Dead Loads and Live Loads
which is appealing
Changes in load factors and resistance
factors are much easier to make in LRFD
compared to changing the allowable
stress in ASD
LRFD is intrinsically appealing as it
requires better understanding of behavior
of the structure in its limit states
Design approach similar to LRFD is being
followed in Design of concrete structures
in form of Ultimate Strength Design -- why
not use similar approach design of steel
structures?

ASD indirectly incorporates the Factors
of Safety by limiting the stress whereas
LRFD aims to specify Factors of Safety
directly by specifying Resistance
Factors and Load Factors
LRFD is more rational as different
Factors of Safety can be assigned to
different loadings such as Dead Loads,
Live Loads, Earthquake Loads and
Impact Loads
LRFD considers variability not only in
resistance but also in the effects of load
which provides measure of safety related
to probability of failure
It achieves fairly uniform levels of safety
for different limit states.
ASD still remains as a valid Design
Method
In LRFD For Tension Members:
1.2D + 1.6 L = 0.90 Rn  1.33D + 1.78 L = Rn (LRFD)
In ASD Factor of Safety FS = 1.67, Therefore:
1.0D + 1.0 L = Rn / 1.67  1.67D + 1.67D L = Rn (ASD)
LRFD 1.33D  1.78L 0.8  1.07 ( L / D)

  …. (A)
ASD 1.67 D  1.67 L 1  ( L / D)
In LRFD For Dead Load Case:

1.4D = 0.90 Rn  1.56D = Rn (LRFD)
LRFD 1.56 D 0.93

  …. (B)
ASD 1.67 D  1.67 L 1  ( L / D)
3%
1.0
0.93
1.2D + 1.6L
0.9
0.83
LRFD
ASD
0.8
1.4D
0.7
0.12 1 2 3 4 5 6
Live Load
Dead Load
AREA Code for Design of
Railway Structures
AREA Stands for American Railway
Engineers Association (AREA)
Railway Bridges and Structures are usually
designed using provisions of the AREA Code
AREA Code uses only the Allowable Stress
Design Method. However, the allowable
stresses and design requirements may differ
from AISC/ASD method

AASHTO Code for Design of
Highway Bridges
• AASHTO Stands for Association of American

State and Highway Transportation Officials
(AASHTO)
• Highway Bridges are usually designed using

provisions of the AASHTO Code
• AASHTO Code uses both ASD and LRFD

Design Methods

The role of various Codes
 It is very difficult to devise a design code that is
applicable to all uses and all types of
structures such as buildings, highway bridges,
railway bridges and transmission towers
 The responsibility of infrastructure on roads,
bridges and electrical transmission towers
rests with the organization responsible for
approving, operating and maintaining these
facilities

The role of various Codes
Uses and critical loads may be different in

different types of structures and no one
code can cater to all the different important
considerations
For above reasons different codes prevail
and will continue to do so
AISC ASD Code and LRFD Code primarily
is pertinent to Building Structures.
Overview of LRFD Manual
Part 1: Dimensions and properties
Part 2: General Design considerations
Part 3: Design of flexural members
Part 4: Design of compression members
Part 5: Design of Tension members
Part 6: Design of members subject to
combined loading

Part 7: Design considerations for bolts
Part 8: Design considerations for welds
Part 9: Design of connecting elements
Part 10: Design of simple shear
connections
Part 11: Design of flexible moment
connections

Part 12: Design of fully restrained (FR)
moment connections
Part 13: Design of Bracing connections and
truss connections
Part 14: Design of Beam bearing plates,
Column base plates, anchor rods,
and column splices.

Part 15: Design of Hanger connections,
Bracket plates, and Crane-rail
connections
ANSI/LRFD Specifications for structural

steel Buildings.

Design Process
1. Functional planning
• Development of a plan that will enable the structure to
fulfill effectively the purpose for which it is to be built

Design Process
The involvement of Structural engineer in the functional planning is very imp

because an Architect can suggest a plane which is practically not possible.

Design Process
2. Structural scheme

Design Process
2. Structural scheme (Contd.)

Design Process
3. Preliminary Member Sizing of Beams
Deflection Considerations
ASD Commentary L3.1 suggests following
Limits:
L 800
 For fully stressed Beams & Girders
D Fy ( Ksi )
L
 20 For Beams & Girders subject to
D vibrations
L 800
 For Roof Purlins
D Fy ( Ksi )

Design Process
3. Preliminary Member Sizing of Beams
Strength/Capacity Considerations
Design Moment
Trib
ut ary
Are
a
Beam
Unbraced Length

Design Process
3. Preliminary Member Sizing of Columns
Strength/Capacity Considerations
Tributary Area
• Use of Tributary Areas and

Column Tables

Tributary Area

Design Process
4. Structural Analysis - Modeling

Design Process
4. Structural Analysis - Analysis

Design Process
5. Design Review/ Member Modification
• Must be chosen so that they will be able to resist,
within appropriate margin of safety, the forces
which the structural analysis has disclosed.

Design Process
6. Cost Estimation
• Make a tentative cost estimates for several
preliminary structural layouts.
• Selection of constructional material based on:
• Availability of specific material
• Corresponding skilled labor
• Relative costs
• Wage scales

Design Process
7. Preparation of Structural Drawings & Specifications

Thanks

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N-W.F.P.

By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 2

Design of Column Bases

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 3

Lecture 01: Design Philosophies

By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 5

In eq(1) it is essential that both sides are

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 6

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 8

 There are three broad classification of

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 9

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 10

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 11

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 12

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 13

• Structure and Structural Members should

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 14

Structural Design must provide adequate

Design Approach should take into account

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 15

It is not economical to design a structure

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 16

Brittle behavior is to be avoided as it

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 17

To determine the acceptable margin of

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 18

The two distinct procedures employed by

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 19

Safety in the design is obtained by

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 20

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 21

It is mostly reasonable where stresses

Rn = Resistance or Strength of the component being designed

Φ = Resistance Factor or Strength Reduction Factor

Qi = Effect of applied loads

CE-411:Lecture No. 1 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 23

CE-411:Lecture No. 1 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 24

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 25

 Implied in the ASD method is the

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 26

Material A has more Residual Stresses due to:

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 27

• ASD does not give reasonable measure

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 28

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 29

Rn = Resistance or Strength of the component being designed

Ductility: It implies a large capacity for inelastic

 Ductility will ensure

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 31

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 32

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 33

Yielding will initiate at supports due to maximum moment at supports

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 34

Redistribution of load to mid span after yielding of section at supports

A hospital and a school require more

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 36

LRFD accounts for both variability in

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 38

It’s disadvantage is change in design

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 39

CE-411: Lecture 01 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 41