Steering

Ackerman Geometry
δo δi
 Basic layout for
passenger cars, trucks,
and ag tractors
 δo = outer steering Center of
angle and δi = inner L Gravity
R Turn
steering angle Center
δi
 R= turn radius δo
 L= wheelbase and Figure 1.1.
t=distance between t Pivoting
tires Spindle

(Gillespie, 1992)
Cornering Stiffness and
Lateral Force of a Single
Tire
 Lateral force (Fy) is the force produced by
the tire due to the slip angle.
 The cornering stiffness (Cα) is the rate of
change of the lateral force with the slip
angle. α
V

Fy t
Figure 1.2. Fy

C  Fy acts at a


(1) distance (t) from
the wheel center
known as the
pneumatic trail

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Slip Angles
 The slip angle (α) is the angle at which a tire rolls
and is determined by the following equations:

W f *V 2
f  (2)
α
Cf * g * R V
Wr *V 2
r  Fy
t
Cr * g * R (3)

W = weight on tires
C α= Cornering Stiffness
Figure 1.2.
g = acceleration of gravity Repeated
V = vehicle velocity

(Gillespie, 1992)
 Steering angle
 The steering angle (δ) is also known as the Ackerman angle and is the
average of the front wheel angles
 For low speeds it is:

δi
δo
 For high speeds it is:
L
  (4)
R Center

L of
L R
   f r Gravity
δi
R (5) δo
αf=front slip angle
Figure 1.1.
αr=rear slip angle t
Repeated
(Gillespie, 1992)
Three Wheel
Figure 1.3. Three wheel
vehicle with turn radius
and steering angle
shown
R
δ

 Easier to determine steer angle

 Turn center is the intersection of just two
lines
Both axles pivot
Figure 1.5. Both axles
pivot with turn radius
and steering angle
R
shown
δ

 Only two lines determine steering

angle and turning radius
 Can have a shorter turning radius
Articulated

 Can have
shorter
turning radius
 Allows front
and back axle Figure 1.6. Articulated
to be solid vehicle with turn radius
and steering angle
shown
Aligning Torque of a
Single Tire
 Aligning Torque (Mz) is the resultant
moment about the center of the wheel
due to the lateral force.

M z  Fy * t (6) α
V

t
Fy
Figure 1.7. Top Mz
view of a tire
showing the
aligning torque.

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Camber Angle
 Camber angle (Φ) Φ
is the angle
between the wheel
center and the
vertical.
 It can also be
referred to as
inclination angle Figure 1.8.
(γ). Camber angle

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

 Camber Thrust
 Camber thrust (FYc) is
due to the wheel rolling
at the camber angle Mzc tc
 The thrust occurs at Fyc
small distance (tc) from
the wheel center
 A camber torque is then
produced (MZc)

Figure 1.9. Camber thrust and torque

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Camber on Ag Tractor
Pivot Axis
Φ

Figure 1.10.
Camber angle on
an actual tractor
Wheel Caster
Pivot Axis
 The axle is placed
some distance
behind the pivot
axis
 Promotes stability
 Steering becomes
more difficult Figure 1.11. Wheel
caster creating
stability

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Neutral Steer

 No change in the steer angle is

necessary as speed changes
 The steer angle will then be equal to
the
Ackerman angle.
 Front and rear slip angles are equal

(Gillespie, 1992)
Understeer
 The steered wheels must be steered to a
greater angle than the rear wheels
 The steer angle on a constant radius turn is
increased by the understeer gradient (K) times
the lateral acceleration. α
V

t
L ay
   K * ay (7)

R
Figure 1.2.
Repeated

(Gillespie, 1992)
 Understeer Gradient
 If we set equation 6 equal to equation 2 we can see that K*a y is equal
to the difference in front and rear slip angles.
 Substituting equations 3 and 4 in for the slip angles yields:

Wf Wr
K   (8)
Cf Cr
Since
2
V
ay  (9)
g*R
(Gillespie, 1992)
Characteristic Speed
 The characteristic speed is a way to
quantify understeer.
 Speed at which the steer angle is
twice the Ackerman angle.

57.3 * L * g
Vchar  (10)
K

(Gillespie, 1992)
Oversteer
 The vehicle is such that the steering wheel
must be turned so that the steering angle
decreases as speed is increased
 The steering angle is decreased by the
understeer gradient times the lateral
acceleration, meaning the understeer
gradient is negative
 Front steer angle is less than rear steer angle

(Gillespie, 1992)
Critical Speed
 The critical speed is the speed
where an oversteer vehicle is no
longer directionally stable.

57.3 * L * g
Vcrit  (11)
K

Note: K is negative in oversteer case

(Gillespie, 1992)
Lateral Acceleration Gain
 Lateral acceleration gain is the ratio of lateral
acceleration to the steering angle.
 Helps to quantify the performance of the system
by telling us how much lateral acceleration is
achieved per degree of steer angle

V2
ay 57.3Lg (12)

 KV 2
1
57.3Lg
(Gillespie, 1992)
 Example Problem
 A car has a weight of 1850 lb front axle and 1550 lb on the
rear with a wheelbase of 105 inches. The tires have the
cornering stiffness values given below:

Load Cornering Cornering

lb/tire Stiffness Coefficient
lbs/deg lb/lb/deg
225 74 0.284
425 115 0.272
625 156 0.260
925 218 0.242
1125 260 0.230
Determine the steer angle if the
minimum turn radius is 75 ft:
 We just use equation 1.

L 105 / 12
   0.117 rad.
R 75
Or 6.68 deg
Basic System Components

 Steering Valve
 Cylinder/Actuator
 Filter
 Reservoir
 Steering Pump
 Relief Valve
– Can be built into
pump
 Pump

 Driven by direct or indirect coupling

with the engine or electric motor
 The type depends on pressure and
displacement requirements,
permissible noise levels, and circuit
type
Actuators
 There are three types of actuators
– Rack and pinion
– Cylinder
– Vane
 The possible travel of the actuator is limited
by the steering geometry
Cylinders

 Between the steered wheels

 Always double acting
 Can be one or two cylinders
 Recommended that the stroke to bore
ratio be between 5 and 8 (Whittren)
Hydrostatic Steering Valve
 Consists of two sections E
– Fluid control D A
– Fluid metering
 Contains the following
– Linear spool (A) G
– Drive link (B)
– Rotor and stator set
(C) F
– Manifold (D)
C
– Commutator ring (E) B H
– Commutator (F)
– Input shaft (G)
– Torsion bar (H)
 Steering Valve
Characteristics
 Usually six way
 Commonly spool valves
 Closed Center, Open Center, or Critical Center
 Must provide an appropriate flow gain
 Must be sized to achieve suitable pressure losses
at maximum flow
 No float or lash
 No internal leakage to or from the cylinder
 Must not be sticky
Valve Flows
 The flow to the load from the valve can be
calculated as:
(1)

 The flow from the supply to the valve can

be calculated as:
(2)

QL=flow to the load from the valve A1=larger valve orifice

QS=flow to the valve from the supply A2=smaller valve orifice
Cd=discharge coefficient ρ=fluid density
PS=pressure at the supply PL=pressure at the load
(Merritt, 1967)
Flow Gain

 Flow gain is the ratio of flow increment to

valve travel at a given pressure drop
(Wittren, 1975)
 It is determined by the following equation:

(3)

QL=flow from the valve to the load

Xv=displacement from null position
Flow Gain
Lands ground to
change area gradient
Open Center Valve Flow
 The following equation represents the flow to the load
for an open center valve:

(10)

 If PL and xv are taken to be 0 then, the leakage

flow is:
(11)

U=Underlap of valve

(Merritt, 1967)
Open Center Flow Gain

 In the null position, the flow gain can

be determined by (Merritt, pg. 97):

(12)

The variables are the same as defined in the

previous slide.

(Merritt, 1967)
Pressure Sensitivity
 Pressure sensitivity is an indication of the effect
of spool movement on pressure
 It is given by the following equation from
Merritt:

(4)
Open Center Pressure
Sensitivity
 In the null position, the open center
pressure sensitivity is:

(13)

U = underlap
(Merritt, 1967)
Open Center System

 Fixed Displacement Pump

– Continuously supplies flow to the
steering valve
– Gear or Vane
 Simple and economical
 Works the best on smaller
vehicles
Open Center Circuit, Non-
Reversing Metering
Section

 Non-Reversing-
Cylinder ports are
blocked in neutral
valve position, the
operator must steer
the wheel back to
straight
Open Center Circuit,
Reversing
 Reversing –
Wheels
automatically
return to
straight
Open Center Circuit,
Power Beyond
 Any flow not used
by steering goes to
secondary function
 Good for lawn and
garden equipment
and utility vehicles
Auxiliary
Port
Open Center Demand
Circuit
 Contains closed center load
sensing valve and open
center auxiliary circuit valve
 When vehicle is steered,
steering valve lets pressure
to priority demand valve,
increasing pressure at priority
valve causes flow to shift
 Uses fixed displacement
pump
Closed Center System
 Pump-variable delivery, constant pressure
– Commonly an axial piston pump with
variable swash plate
– A compensator controls output flow
maintaining constant pressure at the
steering unit
– Usually high pressure systems
 Possible to share the pump with other
hydraulic functions
– Must have a priority valve for the
steering system
Closed Center Circuit,
Non-Reversing
 Variable displacement pump
 All valve ports blocked
when vehicle is not being
steered
 Amount of flow dependent
on steering speed and
displacement of steering
valve
Closed Center Circuit with
priority valve
 With steering
priority valve
– Variable volume,
pressure
compensating pump
– Priority valve ensures
adequate flow to
steering valve
Closed Center Load
Sensing Circuit
 A special load sensing valve is
used to operate the actuator
 Load variations in the steering
circuit do not affect axle
response or steering rate
 Only the flow required by the
steering circuit is sent to it
 Priority valve ensures the
steering circuit has adequate
flow and pressure
Arrangements
 Steering valve and metering unit
as one linked to steering wheel

 Metering unit at
steering wheel,
steering valve
remote linked
Design Calculations-
Hydraguide
 Calculate Kingpin Torque
 Determine Cylinder Force
 Calculate Cylinder Area
 Determine Cylinder Stroke
 Calculate Swept Volume
 Calculate Displacement
 Calculate Minimum Pump Flow
 Decide if pressure is suitable
 Select Relief Valve Setting
(Parker, 2000)
Kingpin Torque (Tk)
 First determine the
coefficient of friction
(μ) using the chart. E
(in) is the Kingpin Figure 3.10.
Coefficient of
offset and B (in) is
Friction Chart
the nominal tire width and Kingpin
Diagram
(Parker)

(Parker, 2000)
 Kingpin Torque
 Information about the tire is needed. If we
assume a uniform tire pressure then the following
equation can be used.

Io
T W * *  E2 (1)
A
W=Weight on steered axle (lbs)
Io=Polar moment of inertia of tire print
A=area of tire print
μ.= Friction Coefficient
E= Kingpin Offset
(Parker, 2000)
 Kingpin Torque
 If the pressure distribution is known then the
radius of gyration (k) can be computed. The
following relationship can be applied.
Io
k 2
 (2)
A
 If there is no information available about the tire
print, then a circular tire print can be assumed using
the nominal tire width as the diameter

B2
Tk  W*μ  E2 (3)
8

(Parker, 2000)
Calculate Approximate
Cylinder Force (Fc)

TK
FC  (4)

R
Fc= Cylinder Force (lbs) Figure 3.11 Geometry
R = Minimum Radius Arm Diagram (Parker)

TK= Kingpin Torque

(Parker, 2000)
Calculate Cylinder Area (Ac)

Fc
Ac  (5)

P
 Fc=Cylinder Force (lbs)
 P=Pressure rating of steering valve
 Select the next larger cylinder size
-For a single cylinder use only the rod area
-For a double cylinder use the rod end area plus the bore
area

(Parker, 2000)
Determine Cylinder Stroke (S)

Figure 3.11 Geometry

Diagram (Parker)
Repeated

(Parker, 2000)
Swept Volume (Vs) of Cylinder
 Swept Volume (in3) One Balanced Cylinder


VS  * ( DB  DR ) * S
2 2
(6)
4
DB=Diameter of bore
DR=Diameter of rod
S = Stroke
Vs = Swept volume
(Parker, 2000)
Swept Volume of Cylinder
 One Unbalanced Cylinder
– Head Side

 * DB2
Vs  *S
4 (7)

– Rod Side
-Same as one balanced
 Two Unbalanced Cylinders
 *S
Vs  ( 2 * DB  DR )
2 2
(8)
4
(Parker, 2000)
Displacement

Vs
D (9)

n
D= Displacement
n= Number of steering wheel turns lock to lock
Vs = Volume swept

(Parker, 2000)
Minimum Pump Flow

D * Ns
Q (10)

231
Ns = steering speed in revolutions per minute
Q = Pump Flow is in gpm per revolution
D = Displacement

(Parker, 2000)
Steering Speed

 The ideal steering speed is 120 rpm,

which is considered the maximum
input achievable by an average person
 The minimum normally considered is
usually 60 rpm
 90 rpm is common

(Parker, 2000)
Hydraulic Power Assist

 Hydraulic power assist means that a

hydraulic system is incorporated with
mechanical steering
 This is the type of power steering used
on most on-highway vehicles
Full Time Part Time
Power Steering
 Part Time
– The force of the center springs of the valve
gives the driver the “feel” of the road at the
steering wheel.

 Full Time
– The valve is installed without centering springs.
Any movement of the steering wheel results in
hydraulic boost being applied.

(Vickers, 1967)
Electrohydraulic Steering

 Electrohydraulic steering can refer

to
– A hydraulic power steering system
driven with and electric motor
– A power steering system that uses
wires to sense the steering wheel
input and actuate the steering valve
Electric Motor

 An electric motor can be used to

power the steering pump instead of
the engine
– Lowers fuel consumption
– Allows for more flexibility of design
SKF Electro-hydraulic Steering
Considerations for E-H
System Design
 Simulation of end stops
 Operational environment
 Safety
 Steering functions
 Force feedback