CELL

CYCLE
 CELL CYCLE
 The cell cycle is the complex sequence of
events by which cells grow and divide.

 In eukaryotic cells, this process includes four

distinct phases which are Mitosis phase (M),
Gap 1 phase (G 1), Synthesis phase (S), and Gap
2 phase (G 2)
 CELL CYCLE
 The four distinct phases are collectively
referred to as interphase.
 The mitosis phase of the cell division process
involves the separation of nuclear
chromosomes, followed by cytokinesis.
 Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm
forming two distinct cells.
 CELL CYCLE
 At the end of mitotic cell cycle, two distinct
daughter cells are produced. Each cell contains
identical genetic material.

 The time it takes for a cell to complete one

cycle varies depending on the type of cell.
 CELL CYCLE
 Some cells divide rapidly and constantly such
as blood cells, skin cells and cells lining the
stomach and intestines.
 Other cells divide when needed to replace
damaged or dead cells such as cells of the
kidneys, liver and lungs.
 Still, other cell types, including nerve cells,
stop dividing once mature.
PHASES OF
THE CELL
CYCLE
 PHASES OF THE CELL
CYCLE
 The two main divisions of the cell cycle are
interphase and mitosis.

INTERPHASE
 During this segment of the cell cycle, a cell
double its cytoplasm and synthesizes DNA.
 It is estimated that a dividing cell spends 90-
95% of its time in this phase.
 PHASES OF THE CELL
INTERPHASE CYCLE
 G 1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of
DNA.

: In this phase, the cell increases in

mass and organelle number in pre-
paration for cell division.
; checkpoint
 PHASES OF THE CELL
INTERPHASE

CYCLE
S phase: The period during which DNA is
synthesized.

: In most cells, there is a narrow window

of time during which DNA is synthesized.

:The chromosome content is doubled in

this phase.
 PHASES OF THE CELL
INTERPHASE CYCLE
 G 2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis
has occurred but prior to the start
of mitosis.

: The cell synthesizes additional

proteins and continues to increase
in size.
STAGES OF
MITOSIS
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
 INTERPHASE
EARLY PROPHASE
 PROPHASE
LATE PROPHASE
TRANSITION TO METAPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
PROPHASE:
 In this stage, changes occur in both the
cytoplasm and nucleus of the dividing cell.

 The chromatin condenses into discrete

chromosomes
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
PROPHASE:
 The chromosomes begin to migrate toward
the cell center

The nuclear envelope breaks down and spindle

fibers form at opposite poles of the cell.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
METAPHASE:
In this stage, the nuclear membrane
disappears completely.
The spindle fully develops and the
chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Metaphase plate is a plane that is equally
distant from the two poles.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
ANAPHASE:

In this stage, paired chromosomes (sister

chromatids) separate and begin moving to
opposite ends (poles) of the cell.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
TELOPHASE:
 In this stage, the chromosomes are cordoned
off into distinct new nuclei and the genetic
content of the cell is divided equally into two
parts.
 Cytokinesis begins prior to the end of mitosis
and completes shortly after telophase.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
Once a cell has completed the cell cycle, it goes
back into the G 1 phase and repeats the cycle
again.

Cells in the body can also be placed in a non-

dividing state called the Gap 0 phase (G 0 phase).
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
Cells may remain at G 0 phase for very long
periods of time until they are signaled to
progress through the cell cycle.

Cells that contain genetic mutations are

permanently placed in G 0 phase to ensure they
are not replicated.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
When the cell cycle goes wrong, normal cell
growth is lost. Cancer cells may develop, which
gain control of their own growth signals and
continue to multiply.
 CELL CYCLE
AND MEIOSIS
 CELL CYCLE AND
MEIOSIS
 Organisms that reproduce sexually also
undergo a type of cell division called meiosis.

Meiosis occurs in sex cells and is similar in

process to mitosis.

After a complete cell cycle in meiosis however,

four daughter cells are produced.
 CELL CYCLE AND
MEIOSIS
 Each cell contains ½ the number of
chromosomes as the original parent cell. This
means that sex cells are haploid cells.

When haploid male and female gametes unite

in a process called fertilization, they form one
diploid cell called a zygote.
CROSSING OVER
AND
RECOMBINATION
IN MEIOSIS
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
1. Genetic recombination happens during
meiosis, a special type of cell division that occurs
during formation of sperm and egg cells and
gives them the correct number of
chromosomes.
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
2. Inside the cells that produce sperm and eggs,
chromosomes become paired.

While they are pressed together, the

chromosomes may break, and each may swap a
portion of its genetic material from its mate. This
form of recombination is called crossing-over.
When the chromosomes glue themselves back
together and separate, each has picked up a new
genetic material from the other.

The constellation of physical characteristics it

determines is now different than before
crossing-over.
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
3. Tracking the movement of genes during cross-over
helps geneticists determine roughly how far apart two
genes are on a chromosome.

Genes that lie far apart are likely to end up on 2 different

chromosomes.

Genes that lie very close together are likely to be

separated by a break and crossing-over.
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
4. Genes that tend to stay together during
recombination are said to be linked.

Sometimes, one gene in a linked pair serves as a

‘marker’ that can be used by geneticists to infer
the presence of the other. (often, a disease-
causing gene)
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
5. After the chromosomes separate, they are
parceled out into individual sex cells.

Each chromosome moves independently – a

phenomenon called independent assortment.
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
6. Assortment takes place for each of the 23
pairs of human chromosomes.

So, any single human egg receives one of two

possible chromosomes 23 times, and the total
number of different possible chromosome
combinations is over 7.8 million.
There are so many combinations which make for
much genetic variation.
APPLICATIONS OF
MITOSIS/MEIOSIS
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
1. Meiosis produces gametes.
 Gametes only have half the number of
chromosomes or strands of DNA, that a normal
cell does.
Two of them must fuse in order to form a new
cell that will develop into a new organism.
 One advantage of meiosis is that gametes of
some organisms can be released into the
environment.

External fertilization is the process in which a

sperm or pollen fertilizes an egg while both are
outside of the mother.
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
2. Mitosis builds reproductive organs.

In multicellular organisms, meiosis is only

possible because mitosis made organs that
nurture the cells to undergo meiosis.
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
3. The Reproductive Endocrine System
 The human reproductive system is controlled
by the brain.
The brain and the reproductive organs talk to
each other by releasing endocrine hormones
into the blood.
Cells that produce the hormones in each organ
were the result of mitosis, not meiosis
 CROSSING OVER AND
RECOMBINATION IN MEIOSIS
4. Spermatogonia and Oogonia
 Another importance of mitosis in sustaining meiosis
is that the cells that undergo meiosis to produce
gametes can also undergo mitosis.

These cells undergo mitosis before meiosis so that

they can make more copies of themselves. The more
copies there are, the more gametes can be produced
later on.
 DISORDERS AND
DISEASES THAT
RESULT FROM THE
MALFUNCTION OF
THE CELL DURING
THE CELL CYCLE
DISORDERS AND DISEASES THAT RESULT FROM
THE MALFUNCTION OF THE CELL DURING THE
CELL CYCLE
Chromosome abnormalities typically occur as a
result of errors in one, or more, of the following:
meiosis, mitosis, maternal age or environment.
DISORDERS AND DISEASES THAT RESULT FROM
THE MALFUNCTION OF THE CELL DURING THE
CELL CYCLE
1. Meiosis
 When fertilization occurs, the normal 46 total
number of chromosomes result in the fetus. If
meiosis does not occur properly, an egg or
sperm could end up too many chromosomes or
not enough chromosomes.
 Upon fertilization, the baby could then receive
an extra chromosome (trisomy), or have a
missing chromosome (monosomy).

Down syndrome, Edward syndrome and Patau

syndrome are the most common forms of
trisomy.
DISORDERS AND DISEASES THAT RESULT FROM
THE MALFUNCTION OF THE CELL DURING THE
CELL CYCLE
2. Mitosis

 During pregnancy, an error in mitosis can

occur. If the chromosomes do not split into
equal halves, the new cells can have an extra
chromosome or missing chromosome.
Mosaicism is a condition in which cells within
the same person have a different genetic
makeup. This condition can affect any type of
cell.
DISORDERS AND DISEASES THAT RESULT FROM
THE MALFUNCTION OF THE CELL DURING THE
CELL CYCLE
3. Maternal Age

 When a mother will be 35 years of age at

delivery (or older), she may be referred for a
genetic counseling or for prenatal diagnosis,
such as amniocentesis because of her age.
If a woman is 35 years old, the eggs in the
ovaries are also 35 years old. The risk for a baby
to be born with a chromosome abnormality
increases with the age of mother.

Errors in meiosis may be more prone to

happen as a result of the aging process.
DISORDERS AND DISEASES THAT RESULT FROM
THE MALFUNCTION OF THE CELL DURING THE
CELL CYCLE
4. Environment
 There is some evidence accumulating how a
woman’s body processes the B vitamin folic
acid, may have something to do with
chromosome abnormalities.
Those women who do not process this vitamin
completely, may have a predisposition to
having a child with chromosome abnormality.
TRANSPORT
MECHANISM
STRUCTURAL
COMPONENTS
OF THE CELL
MEMBRANE
 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF
THE CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

 The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix

of proteins and lipids.

Lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80

percent of the membrane with the remainder
being proteins.
 Lipids help to give membranes their flexibility.

Proteins monitor and maintain the cell’s

chemical climate and assist in the transfer of
molecules across the membrane.
 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF
THE CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE LIPIDS
 Phospholipids are a major component of cell
membranes.

Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in which their

hydrophilic (attracted to water) head areas
spontaneously arrange to face the aqueous cytosol
and the extracellular fluid.
Their hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail
areas face away from the cytosol and
extracellular fluid.

The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable.

By having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic

parts, phospholipids are considered
amphipathic molecules
 Cholesterol is another lipid component of
animal cell membranes.

 Cholesterol is not found in the membranes of

plant cells.

 Cholesterol molecules are selectively dispersed

between membrane phospholipids. This helps to
keep cell membranes from becoming stiff.
 Glycolipids are located on cell membrane
surfaces.

 They have a carbohydrate sugar chain

attached to them.

 They help the cell to recognize other cells of

the body.
 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF
THE CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
 Structural proteins help to give the cell support
and shape.

 Cell membrane receptor proteins help cell

communicate with their external environment
through the use of hormones, neurotransmitters,
and other signaling molecules.
 Transport proteins such as globular proteins,
transport molecules across cell membranes
through facilitated diffusion.

 Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain

attached to them. They are embedded in the
cell membrane and help in cell to cell
communications and molecule transport across
the membrane.
 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
OF THE CELL MEMBRANE AND ITS
FUNCTION
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Plasma membrane can be defined as a biological
membrane or an outer membrane of a cell which is
composed of two layers of phospholipids and
embedded with proteins.

 It is a thin semi-permeable membrane layer, which

surrounds the cytoplasm and other constituents of
the cell.
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA
1. It separates MEMBRANE
the contents of the cell from its
outside environment and it regulates what
enters and exits the cell.

2. Plasma membrane plays a vital role in

protecting the integrity of the interior of the
cell by allowing only selected substances into
the cell and keeping other substances out.
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
3. It also serves as a base attachment for the
cytoskeleton in some organisms and the
cell wall in others.

Thus the cell membrane supports the cell

and helps in maintaining the shape of the
cell.
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
4. The cell membrane is primarily composed
of proteins and lipids.

While lipids help to give membranes their

flexibility and proteins monitor and maintain
the cell’s chemical climate and assist in the
transfer of molecules across the membrane.
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
5. The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, which
allows only selected molecules to diffuse
across the membrane.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
1. The plasma membrane (cell membrane) is
made of two layers of phospholipids.

2. The plasma membrane has many proteins

embedded in it.
3. The plasma membrane regulates the entry
and exit of the cell. Many molecules cross
the cell membrane by diffusion and
osmosis.
4. The fundamental structure of the membrane
is phospho-lipid bilayer and it forms a stable
barrier between two aqueous compartments.
5. The proteins present in plasma membrane act
as pumps,channels,receptors,enzymes or
structural components.
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE
1. It is the boundary, which separates the living
cell from their non-living surroundings.

2. It is the phospholipids bilayer.

3. Plasma membrane is an amphipathic, which

contains both hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tail
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
4. It is the fluidSTRUCTURE
mosaic of lipids, proteins and
carbohydrate.

5. It is lipid bilayer, which contains –two layers

of phospholipids, phosphate head is polar
(water loving), fatty acid tails non-polar
(water-fearing) and the proteins embedded
in membrane.
 COMPONENTS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
The main components of plasma membrane
include:

1. Proteins like glycoprotein, which are used

for cell recognition and act as receptors
and antigens.
2. Proteins like glycolipids which are attached
to phospholipids along with the sugar chains.
 COMPONENTS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
3. Lipids with short chain of carbohydrates
which are attached on the extracellular
side
of the membrane.
4. Phospholipid bilayer is made up of
phosphates and lipids.
5. Cholesterol maintains the fluidity of cell
surface membrane.
PROTEINS IN
PLASMA
MEMBRANE
 COMPONENTS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
There are three types of proteins in plasma
membrane, which include:

1. Cell membrane receptor proteins – They help

in communication of a cell with their external
environment with the help of hormones,
neurotransmitters and other signaling
molecules.
 COMPONENTS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
2. Transport proteins – They help in transporting
molecules across cell membranes through
facilitated diffusion. For example: globular
proteins.

3. Glycoprotein - It helps in cell to cell

communications and molecule transport across
the membrane.
PROKARYOTIC
PLASMA
MEMBRANE
 PROKARYOTIC PLASMA
MEMBRANE
 The prokaryotic plasma membranes are
composed of phospholipids bilayer with
embedded proteins.

 The fatty acids of the phospholipids are found

in the middle of the bilayer, this is called
hydrophobic region.
 PROKARYOTIC PLASMA
MEMBRANE
 Prokaryotic cells can have multiple plasma
membranes.

 In prokaryotic organisms, plasma membranes

are responsible for controlling the entry and
exit of the cell.
EUKARYOTIC
PLASMA
MEMBRANE
EUKARYOTIC PLASMA MEMBRANE
 The eukaryotic plasma membrane is a
phospholipids bilayer containing proteins and
carbohydrates attached to proteins and sterols.

 It is a fluid phospholipids bilayer embedded

with proteins and glycoprotein.
EUKARYOTIC PLASMA MEMBRANE
 The phospholipids bilayer is arranged in such a
manner that they form the center of the
membrane.

 They contain sterols which makes the

membrane less permeable and helps to
stabilize the membrane and add the rigidity to
membranes.
 TRANSPORT
MECHANISM IN
CELLS
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS
 Cells require and use energy and materials to
perform cellular tasks such as movement, dividing
and reproducing.

 Cells of multicellular organisms are surrounded

by extracellular fluid.

Single-cell organisms are surrounded by water in

which they live or in fluids of their host’s body.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS
 Materials move through membranes and
within cells by passive transport mechanisms
such as diffusion or osmosis.

 In passive transport, the cells do not use any

energy to move the molecules. The molecules
move through a gradual change or GRADIENT.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS

 Active transport is wherein the cell uses

energy to get molecules into or out of the cell
against the gradient.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS
PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
Diffusion is the tendency of molecules or
materials to move from areas of high
concentrations into areas the same molecules are
in a lower concentration.

 This tendency is a result of the intrinsic thermal

energy (heat) found in all molecules at
temperatures above absolute zero.
Most materials move by simple diffusion
through the semi permeable membrane
surrounding the cell.

Simple diffusion does not require energy.

Instead, it happens by random motion.
There is a higher concentration of The concentration of oxygen
oxygen molecules outside the cell molecules is the same outside and
than inside the cell. inside the cell.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS
 Osmosis is the movement of a solvent such as
water through a semi-permeable membrane
from areas of high concentration of the same
solvent.

 In cells, the solvent is water.

 In hypotonic solutions, where the fluid surrounding
the cell has lower osmotic pressure, the water
moves into the cell.

 In isotonic solutions, the water entering and leaving

is about equal and so there is no net movement.

In hypertonic solutions, where the fluid surrounding

the cell has lower osmotic pressure, the water
moves out of a cell.
 Plant cells have higher solute concentrations
than the surrounding fluids.

Turgor pressure helps to keep the cells rigid or

stiff.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS

 In facilitated diffusion transport proteins in

the membrane help move molecules along
concentration gradient without any additional
energy input by the cell.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 The cell utilizes cellular energy in the form of
ATP to move a substance from a region of
lower concentration to region of higher
concentration, that is, in the direction against
its concentration gradient.
 Active transport is usually associated with
accumulating high concentrations of molecules
that the cell needs, such as amino acids, ions and
glucose.

A typical example of active transport is the

sodium/potassium pump in cell membranes
especially in nerve cells.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS
BULK TRANSPORT
 The movement of macromolecules such as
proteins or polysaccharides into or out of the
cell.

 There are two types f bulk transport:

exocytosis and endocytosis, and both require
the expenditure of energy (ATP).
EXOCYTOSIS
 materials are exported out of the cell via
secretory vesicles.

 exocytosis is important in expulsion of waste

materials out of the cell and in the secretion of
cellular products such as digestive enzymes or
hormones.
ENDOCYTOSIS
 it is the process by which materials move into
the cell.

 There are three types of endocytosis:

phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-
mediated endocytosis.
 in phagocytosis or cellular eating, the cell’s
plasma membrane surrounds a macromolecule
or even an entire cell from the extracellular
environment and buds off to form a food
vacuole or phagosome.

The newly formed phagosome then fuses with

lysosome whose hydrolytic enzymes digests the
food inside.
 in pinocytosis or cellular drinking , the cell
engulfs drops of fluid by pinching in and
forming vesicles that are smaller than the
phagosomes formed in phagocytosis.

Like phagocytosis, pinocytosis is a non-specific

process in which the cell takes in whatever
solutes that are dissolver in the liquid it
envelopes.
 in receptor-mediated endocytosis, is an
extremely selective process of importing
materials into the cell.

 This specificity is mediated by receptor

proteins located on depressed areas of the cell
membrane called coated pits.