Philippine Normal University

National Center for Teachers Education

BIOLOGY
VERONICA R. ELAURIA
MASE BIOLOGY
TOPIC OUTLINE

 Part III
A. Pattern of Extinction
B. Environment Economics
C. Common Property Resources

D. Environmental Ethics
Pattern of
Extinction
 What is Extinction?
 It is a scientific certainty when there are not any
surviving individuals left to reproduce

Dodo bird Pyrenean Ibex

Tazmanian tiger
Black rhino
 What is Extinction?
 It is a scientific certainty when there are not any surviving individuals left
to reproduce

Dodo bird Pyrenean Ibex

Tazmanian tiger
Black rhino
Functional Extinction
 Only a handful of individuals are left
 Odds of reproduction are slim
 Causes of Extinction
• Genetics and Demographics
– Small populations = increased risk
– Mutations
• Causes a flux in natural selection
• Beneficial genetic traits are
overruled
– Loss of Genetic Diversity
• Shallow gene pools promote
massive inbreeding
POPULATION SIZE IS NEGATIVELY CORRELATED WITH BODY SIZE
GENERATIONS TIME IS CORRELATED WITH BODY SIZE
MORE COMPLEX AND LARGER ORGANISMS HAVE SHORTER PERSISTENCE TIMES
Causes of Extinction

Habitat Degradation
One of the most influential
Has many causes
Some due to humans
Some due to other factors
 Habitat Degradation
• Toxicity
– Kills off species directly through
food/water
– Indirectly via sterilization
– Can occur in short spans (a single
generation)
– Can occur over several generations
• Increasing toxicity
• Increasing competition for habitat
resources
Tracking Map of Microplastics
 Habitat Degradation
• Destruction of Habitat
– “Save the Rainforests!”
– Elimination of living space
– Change in habitat
• Rainforest to pasture lands
– Leads to diminishing resources
• Increases competition
– Can be caused by natural processes
• Volcanoes, floods,
• drought, etc…
Habitat Degradation
Habitat Degradation
 Causes of Extinction

 Predation
 Competition
 Disease

 Coextinction
 Mass Extinction
 Planned Extinction
Predation
• Introduction of predators
– Invasive alien species
– Transported by humans
• Cattle, rats, zebra mussels, etc…
• Sometimes on purpose, sometimes
not
– Can eat other species
– Eat food sources
– Introduce diseases
Predation

Swietenia macrophylla MAHOGANY

Coextinction
• The loss of one species leads to the
loss of another
• Chain of extinction
• Can be caused by small impacts in
the beginning
• A predator looses its food source
• Affected by interconnectedness in
nature

Passenger pigeon and Calumbicola extinctus

Mass Extinction
• Aka: an extinction event
• A sharp decrease in the number of
species on Earth in a short period of
time
• Coincides with a sharp drop in
speciation
– The process by which new biological
species arise
• There have been at least 5
– Last one was 65M years ago
THE “BIG FIVE” EXTINCTION EVENTS
Mass Extinction Diagram
Mass Extinctions

1. Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction (65).

2. End Triassic Extinction (200).
3. Permian Triassic Extinction (250).
4. Late Devonian Extinction (364).
5. Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (440).

(#= millions of years ago)

SPECIES LOSS DURING MASS EXTINCTIONS
 DARWIN’S VIEW OF EXTINCTION

…species and groups of species gradually disappear, one after

another, first from one spot, then from another, and finally from the
world.

The inhabitants of each successive period in the world’s history have

beaten their predecessors in the race for life, and are, insofar, higher
in the scale of nature.

Darwin 1859
FAUNAL REPLACEMENT AMONG SIMILAR ECOTYPES
FAUNAL’S REPLACEMENT AMONG SIMILAR
ECOTYPES
 SIMPSON’S VIEW OF EXTINCTION

In the history of life it is a striking fact that major changes in the taxonomic groups
occupying various ecological positions do not, as a rule, result from direct
competition of the groups concerned in each case and the survival of the fittest. …
On the contrary, the usual sequence is for one dominant group to die out, leaving
the zone empty, before the other group becomes abundant…

Simpson 1944
BIODIVERSITY CRITERIA
Endangered Species
The rare scare…
What is an Endangered Species?

 An endangered species is a population of organisms which is at

risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers,
threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters,
deforestation, or lack of food or water.
 International and national agencies work to maintain lists of
endangered species, to protect and preserve natural habitats,
and to promote programs for recovery and reestablishment of
these species
What is an Extinct Species?
• Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species
• If a species does not have the genetic traits to survive in its environment, then the species
will eventually become extinct forever
• Some examples of extinct animals are:

Galapagos Tortoise Dinosaurs Steller’s Sea Cow Laughing Owl

Bali Tiger Thylacine Quagga Dodo Bird

Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat African Elephant

Endangered Species

Giant Armadillo Black Rhinoceros

Chinese Paddlefish

Snow Leopard
Wild Bactrian Camel

All of these species, along with hundreds of others are currently endangered

Cochabamba Mountain Finch Red Wolf Right Whale

Golden Lion Tamarin Hawaiian Crow

Asiatic Cheetah Short Tailed Chinchilla

Causes of Endangerment
 There are many different reasons that a species may become endangered or
extinct. Some of them that we will explore today are:
 Rarity
 Inbreeding
 Hybridization
 Gradual loss of habitat
 Long-term environmental trends
 Catastrophe
 Extinction or reduction of mutualistic population
 Competition
 Predators
 Disease
 Hunting and collecting
Causes of Endangerment
 Rarity- when there are very few animals of a species left there are less available mates
 Animals can be rare if they have very specific food or nesting requirements, are
sensitive to change, compete with other species, migrate, or interfere with human
activities in some way. (Galapagos tortoise became rare because of their lack of ability
to compete with other species)
 Inbreeding- when animals mate too much within their own group the offspring become
less able to survive and adapt in a healthy way
 Below is a picture of an inbred white tiger with visible birth defects due to inbreeding.
Causes of Endangerment
 Hybridization- When two animals from different sub-species
mate, they might pass on genes that are less healthy (Quagga-
half horse half zebra which is now extinct)
 Gradual loss of habitat- When an animal's habitat is slowly
destroyed and they have nowhere to live. (Bali Tiger, also now
extinct)
Causes of Endangerment

 Long-term environmental trends- Scientists think that dinosaurs

became extinct because of a slow cooling of the earth
 Catastrophe- Volcanic eruption, dramatic change in climate,
tsunami, etc.
Causes of Endangerment
 Extinction or reduction of mutualistic population- If two species are
dependent on each other, then the endangering of one also endangers the
other
 the Ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones would become
endangered if the anemones were to become endangered
 Competition- When a new species is introduced to a habitat, then the
stronger of the two species will be more likely to survive.
 A Japanese vine introduced in a Georgia forest competes with the other plants for light…and
clearly wins.
Causes of Endangerment
 Predators- When the population of a species of predator in a habitat suddenly increases, the
population of their prey decreases
 The wolves in Yellow Stone National Park prevent herbivores from over-grazing the area by
preying on them, thus increasing their risk of endangerment
 Disease- If a particular sickness spreads quickly throughout a particular species, then many may die
before they can reproduce
 The Tasmanian Devil Tumor Disease has made the species become endangered
 Hunting and collecting- Hunters have been largely responsible for the endangerment of many animal
species.
 Elephant poachers have been the cause of many endangered and extinct species of elephants.
Elephants have long been hunted and killed for their valuable ivory tusks
Why Save Endangered Species?

“Plants and animals hold medicinal,

agricultural, ecological, commercial and
aesthetic/recreational value. Endangered
species must be protected and saved so that
future generations can experience their
presence and value.”
Medicinal

 About40% of all prescriptions written today are composed

from the natural compounds of different species
 The Pacific Yew 
is a tree that used to
be considered a “trash tree.”
It was discovered to be a
promising treatment for
some cancers.
Agricultural
 Scientists estimate there are about
80,000 edible plants in the world
 Only 20 species of these plants
(wheat, corn, etc) provide most of
the world’s food.
 Animals, too, are part of the
agriculture. For example, having
birds eat certain insects so that they
do not devour all of the farmer’s
crops
Ecological
 Plant and animal systems are the foundation of healthy
ecosystems. When a species becomes endangered it is an
indicator that the health of these vital ecosystems is beginning to
unravel.

 The US Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that losing one plant
species can trigger the loss of up to 30 other insect, plant, and
higher animal species

 Pollution off the coast of Florida is killing the coral reefs along
the Florida Keys, which serve as a habitat for hundreds of fish.
Commercial fish species have begun to decline causing a threat to
the tourism industry which depends on the quality of the
environment
Commercial

 Various wild species are commercially raised,

directly contributing to local and regional
economies.
 For example, commercial salmon fishing in the
Pacific Northwest provides 60,000 jobs and $1
billion dollars a year in income. This industry is
in trouble as salmon decline due to habitat
degradation from dams, clear cutting, and
overgrazing.
Recreational

 Plant and animal species and their ecosystems

form the basis of America’s multi billion dollar
job intensive tourism industry. They also
supply recreation, spiritual, and quality of life
values as well.

 Each year over 100 million people in the US

participate in wildlife related recreation
including observing, feeding and photographing
wildlife.
 EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW)

Red wolf Pear David’s Deer Guam rail African lion

Blue macao Sumatran Rhino Socorro Dove Simandoa cave coackroach

EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW)

A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized
population (or populations) well outside the past range.
 VULNERABLE (VU)

White hand gibbon White hand gibbon

giraffe koala

Smooth skin otter giraffe Crown pigeon Polar bear

VULNERABLE (VU)
It includes species that are not endangered but are likely to move into the endangered category in the
near future if the threats to its survival continue operating. It also includes species whose populations
 NEAR THREATHENED (NT)
NEAR THREATENED (NT)
Species is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to
qualify for one of these categories in the near future.

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR)

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR)

This includes species, which are facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the
immediate future. The population of such species is very low and the threats to its habitats are very
high. E.g. Asiatic Lion.
Environmental Economics
 Environmental Economics
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS- an area of economics that studies
the financial impact of environmental policies.

•This field of economics helps users design appropriate

environmental policies and analyze the effects and merits of existing
or proposed policies.

•ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMISTS- perform studies to determine the

theoretical or empirical effects of environmental policies on the
economy.
 Policy Tools

1.Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)

 Why Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)?

Environmental policy tools that work through market

mechanisms (taxes, subsidies, transferable permits) – leave the
final decisions on resource use and goods production up to firms
and individuals.
 Why Cost-Benefit Analysis?

In some cases, however, governments must make specific decisions

that have both economic and environmental implications.

In such cases, decision makers use Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) to

balance the positive and the negative consequences of a proposed
action
(Ex. Implementation of Rainforest Farming in Leyte).
Why Cost-Benefits Analysis (BCA)
Benefits Costs
Source of Fruit crops Fruit yielding is low

Source of Lumber High Human Negative

Activity
Soil Nutrition Rotation Human Tenure

Crop Diversity Soil Poor Nutrition

Indigenous Crop promotion Land Fire

Landslide Limitations Introduction of new species

Process of Cost-Benefits Analysis (CBA)?
1. Define Scopes and Problem/Opportunity

2. Formulate Assumptions and Identity Constraints

3. Define Alternatives

4. Develop a Cost Estimate for Alternatives Under Considerations

5. Identify Quantifiable and Non-Quantifiable benefits

6. Define Alternative Selection

7. Compare alternatives

8. Report Results and Recommendation

Common Property Resources
 Common Property Resources
Common Property Resources (CPR) include all such resources that meant for common
use of the community.

Mt. Mantalingahan Wastelands Ambuclao Dam, Davao

Loboc Water Shed Hinatuan Enchanted River

 Common Property Resources
•Pastures
•Forests
•Woodlots •Dam
•Protected areas •Ponds and tanks
•Government forests •Rivers
•Waste land •Rivulets
•Water shed •Water reservoirs
•Drainage •Canals
•Irrigation channels
 Common Property Resources
Common Property Resources (CPR)

•The access is free to all potential users

•It is managed/owned by COMMUNITY and NO INDIVIDUAL
shall have an exclusive property rights on it.
 Philippines Pasture Lands

Coron Silang, Cavite Langkaan Cavite

Batanes La union Roxas

Philippines’ Forests

Man made forest, Bohol

Abatan River, Bohol

 Palawan

Cagayan de Oro
 Dams of thePhilippines

Madongan Dam, Ilocos Magat Dam, Isabela Pantabangan Dam, Nueva Ecija

Ambuclao, Cordillera Wawa Dam, Rizal

Protected Areas
Apo Island
El nido Marine Reserve
Tubbataha Reef National Park
Pulang Bato Fish Sanctuary
“Tragedy of the Commons”
 Environmental Ethics

• Ethics is the study of good and bad, right and wrong.

• Ethical Standards – criteria that help differentiate right from
wrong.
• Environmental Ethics - the study of ethical questions regarding
human interactions with the environment
 Environmental Ethics

•It is a discipline in philosophy that studies

the moral relationship of human beings, the
value and moral status of the environment.
 Some Questions in Environmental Ethics

Should the present generation Are humans justified in

conserve resources for future driving other species to
generations? extinction?

Is it OK for some communities

Is it OK to destroy a forest to to be exposed to more
create jobs for people? pollution than others?

The answers depend, in part, upon the ethical standard you choose
to use.
 Principles of Environmental Ethics

•We should have profound respect for

nature.
•We must maintain harmonious relation with
other species
•Everyone should take responsibility for this
impact on nature.
•Local and Indigenous environmental
knowledge should be protected.
•We must plan for the long term.
Three ethical worldviews

A human centered view of nature.

Anything not providing positive
benefit to people is considered of
negligible value.
Three ethical worldviews

All life has ethical standing, and any

actions taken consider the effects on
all living things, or the biotic world in
general. .
Three ethical worldviews
Considers the integrity of ecological
systems – not just individual animals
(or species). Recognizes the need to
preserve not just entities, but also
their relationships with each other.
 Hotspots of Biodiversity
• A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir
of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.
• Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as endemism are termed as Hotspots of
Biodiversity.
• Myers introduced this term, at that time 25 Hotspots.
• About 40% terrestrial & 25 % vertebrate are endemic found in this hotspots
• After tropical rain forests the second highest number endemic species are found in
Mediterranean
• These hotspots are threatened by human activities. More than 1 billion people most whom
are desperately poor people, live in these areas.
• Measures protecting these areas should be planned.
Sr. No Name of Hotspots Sr. No Name of Hotspots
1 Tropical Andes 19 Indo-Burma
2 Mesoamerican Forests 20 South Central China
3 Caribbean 21 Western Ghats
4 Brazil’s Atlantic Forest 22 South-Western Australia
5 Choc/Darien of Panama Western Ecuador 23 New Caledonia
6 Brazil’s Cerrado 24 New Zealand
7 Central Chile 25 Polynesia/Micronesia
8 California Floristic Province 26 The Madrean Pine-Oak woodlands
9 Madagascar 27 Maputaland-Pondoland Albany
10 Eastern Arc & Coastal forest of Tanzania/ Kenya 28 The eastern Afromontane
11 Western African Forest 29 The Horn Africa
12 Cape Floristic Province 30 The Irano-Anatolian
13 Succulent Karoo 31 The Muntains of Central Asia
14 Mediterranean Basin 32 Eastern Himalaya
15 Caucasus 33 Japan
16 Sundaland 34 East Melanesiaan Islands
17 Wallacea

18 Philippines
References

 Ceballos, G., and Ehrlich, P., 2002, Mammal Population Losses and the Extinction Crisis:
 Science, v. 296, p. 904-908.
 Fahrig, L., 2002, Effect of Habitat Fragmentation on the Extinction Threshold: A
 Synthesis: Ecological Applications, v. 12, p. 346-353.
 Gittleman, J., The Risk of Extinction—What you don’t know will hurt you: Science, v. 291.
 Petcchey, O.L., and Gaston, K.J., Extinction and the loss of functional diversity: They Royal
 Society, p. 1721-1727.
 Rutledge, D., Lepczyk, C., Xie, J., Liu, J., 2001, Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Endangered
 Species Hotspots in the United States: Conservation Biology, v. 15, p. 475- 487.
 Kent, Holsinger. "The Causes of Extinction." 27 Aug. 2005. 12 Mar. 2007
<http://darwin.eeb.uconn.edu/eeb310/lecture-notes/extinctions/node3.html>.
 Madeley, J., Warnock, K., 1995, Biodiversity: A Matter of Extinction: The challenge of protecting the South’s
biological heritage <http://www.panos.org.uk/pdf/reports/ biodiversity.pdf>.
 Trombulak, Stpehen C., et. Al. 2004, Principles of Conservation Biology: Recommended
 Guidelines for Conservation Literacy from the Education Committee of the Society for
 Bald Eagle. US Fish and Wildlife Service <http://www.fws.gov/endangered/i/b/msab0h.html>.
 Conservation Biology: Conservation Biology <http://www.conbio.org/Resources/Education/conservation_literacy_english.pdf>.
 Extinction. Lecture by Bruce Walsh at University of Arizona, 1995.
 <http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/extinction/extinction.html>.
 References
Trombulak, Stpehen C., et. Al. 2004, Principles of Conservation Biology: Recommended
Guidelines for Conservation Literacy from the Education Committee of the Society for
Bald Eagle. US Fish and Wildlife Service
<http://www.fws.gov/endangered/i/b/msab0h.html>.
Conservation Biology: Conservation Biology
<http://www.conbio.org/Resources/Education/conservation_literacy_english.pdf>.
Extinction. Lecture by Bruce Walsh at University of Arizona, 1995.
<http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/extinction/extinction.html>.
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/lists/beautiful-
extinct-animals/
Works Cited

 http://www.teachervision.fen.com/endangered-species/lesson-
plan/6239.html