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Hubs, Bridges and Switches
Hubs, Bridges and Switches
Lecture 3
Lecture 3 #1
Interconnecting LANs
Lecture 3 #2
Hubs
Physical Layer devices: essentially repeaters
operating at bit levels: repeat received bits on one
interface to all other interfaces
Hubs can be arranged in a hierarchy (or multi-tier
design), with backbone hub at its top
Lecture 3 #3
Hubs (more)
Each connected LAN referred to as LAN segment
Hubs do not isolate collision domains: node may collide
with any node residing at any segment in LAN
Hub Advantages:
simple, inexpensive device
Multi-tier provides graceful degradation: portions
of the LAN continue to operate if one hub
malfunctions
extends maximum distance between node pairs
(100m per Hub)
Lecture 3 #4
Hub limitations
single collision domain results in no increase in max
throughput
multi-tier throughput same as single segment
throughput
individual LAN restrictions pose limits on number
of nodes in same collision domain and on total
allowed geographical coverage
cannot connect different Ethernet types (e.g.,
10BaseT and 100baseT) Why?
Lecture 3 #5
Bridges
Link Layer devices: operate on Ethernet
frames, examining frame header and
selectively forwarding frame based on its
destination
Bridge isolates collision domains since it
buffers frames
When frame is to be forwarded on
segment, bridge uses CSMA/CD to access
segment and transmit
Lecture 3 #6
Bridges (more)
Bridge advantages:
Isolates collision domains resulting in higher
total max throughput, and does not limit the
number of nodes nor geographical coverage
Lecture 3 #7
Backbone Bridge
Lecture 3 #8
Interconnection Without Backbone
Lecture 3 #9
Bridges: frame filtering, forwarding
Lecture 3 #10
Bridge Filtering
bridges learn which hosts can be reached through
which interfaces: maintain filtering tables
when frame received, bridge “learns” location of
sender: incoming LAN segment
records sender location in filtering table
Lecture 3 #11
Bridge Operation
bridge procedure(in_MAC, in_port,out_MAC)
Set filtering table (in_MAC) to in_port /*learning*/
lookup in filtering table (out_MAC) receive out_port
if (out_port not valid) /* no entry found for destination */
then flood; /* forward on all but the interface on
which the frame arrived*/
Lecture 3 #12
Bridge Learning: example
Suppose C sends frame to D and D replies back with
frame to C
C 1
Lecture 3 #14
What will happen with loops?
Incorrect learning
2 2
A , 12 A , 12
1 1
A
Lecture 3 #15
What will happen with loops?
Frame looping
2 2
C,?? C,??
1 1
A
Lecture 3 #16
What will happen with loops?
Frame looping
2 2
B,2 B,1
1 1
A
Lecture 3 #17
Introducing Spanning Tree
Note: redundant paths are good, active redundant paths are bad
(they cause loops)
Lecture 3 #18
Spanning Tree Requirements
Each bridge is assigned a unique identifier
A broadcast address for bridges on a LAN
A unique port identifier for all ports on all
bridges
MAC address
Bridge id + port number
Lecture 3 #19
Spanning Tree Concepts:
Root Bridge
The bridge with the lowest bridge ID value
is elected the root bridge
One root bridge chosen among all bridges
Every other bridge calculates a path to the
root bridge
Lecture 3 #20
Spanning Tree Concepts:
Path Cost
A cost associated with each port on each
bridge
default is 1
The cost associated with transmission onto
the LAN connected to the port
Can be manually or automatically assigned
Can be used to alter the path to the root
bridge
Lecture 3 #21
Spanning Tree Concepts:
Root Port
The port on each bridge that is on the path
towards the root bridge
The root port is part of the lowest cost
path towards the root bridge
If port costs are equal on a bridge, the
port with the lowest ID becomes root port
Lecture 3 #22
Spanning Tree Concepts:
Root Path Cost
The minimum cost path to the root bridge
The cost starts at the root bridge
Each bridge computes root path cost
independently based on their view of the
network
Lecture 3 #23
Spanning Tree Concepts:
Designated Bridge
Only one bridge on a LAN at one time is
chosen the designated bridge
This bridge provides the minimum cost path
to the root bridge for the LAN
Only the designated bridge passes frames
towards the root bridge
Lecture 3 #24
Example Spanning Tree
B8
B3
B5 Protocol operation:
1. Picks a root
B7 2. For each LAN,
B2
picks a designated bridge
that is closest to the root.
B1 3. All bridges on a LAN
send packets towards the
root via the designated
bridge.
B6 B4
Lecture 3 #25
Example Spanning Tree
B8
B3 Spanning Tree:
B5 B1
root
port B7
B2
B2 B4 B5 B7
B1
Root B8
Designated
B6 Bridge
B4
Lecture 3 #26
Spanning Tree Algorithm:
An Overview
1. Determine the root bridge among all bridges
2. Each bridge determines its root port
The port in the direction of the root bridge
3. Determine the designated bridge on each LAN
The bridge which accepts frames to forward towards the
root bridge
The frames are sent on the root port of the designated
bridge
Lecture 3 #27
Spanning Tree Algorithm:
Selecting Root Bridge
Initially, each bridge considers itself to be
the root bridge
Bridges send BDPU frames to its attached
LANs
The bridge and port ID of the sending bridge
The bridge and port ID of the bridge the sending bridge
considers root
The root path cost for the sending bridge
Lecture 3 #28
Spanning Tree Algorithm:
Selecting Root Ports
Each bridge selects one of its ports which
has the minimal cost to the root bridge
In case of a tie, the lowest uplink
(transmitter) bridge ID is used
In case of another tie, the lowest port ID
is used
Lecture 3 #29
Spanning Tree Algorithm:
Select Designated Bridges
Lecture 3 #30
Forwarding/Blocking State
Root and designated bridges will forward
frames to and from their attached LANs
All other ports are in the blocking state
Lecture 3 #31
Spanning Tree Protocol: Execution
B8
B3
B5
B7
B2
B6 B4
Lecture 3 #33
Routers vs. Bridges
Bridges + and -
+ Bridge operation is simpler requiring less
processing
- Topologies are restricted with bridges: a spanning
tree must be built to avoid cycles
- Bridges do not offer protection from broadcast
storms (endless broadcasting by a host will be
forwarded by a bridge)
Lecture 3 #34
Routers vs. Bridges
Routers + and -
+ arbitrary topologies can be supported, cycling is
limited by TTL counters (and good routing protocols)
+ provide firewall protection against broadcast storms
- require IP address configuration (not plug and play)
- require higher processing
Lecture 3 #35
Ethernet Switches
layer 2 (frame) forwarding,
filtering using LAN
addresses
Switching: A-to-B and A’-
to-B’ simultaneously, no
collisions
large number of interfaces
often: individual hosts,
star-connected into switch
Ethernet, but no
collisions!
Lecture 3 #36
Ethernet Switches
cut-through switching: frame forwarded
from input to output port without awaiting
for assembly of entire frame
slight reduction in latency
combinations of shared/dedicated,
10/100/1000 Mbps interfaces
Lecture 3 #37
Ethernet Switches (more)
Dedicated
Shared
Lecture 3 #38
Optional: Wireless LAN and PPP
Lecture 3 #39
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
wireless LANs: untethered (often mobile) networking
IEEE 802.11 standard:
MAC protocol
unlicensed frequency spectrum: 900Mhz, 2.4Ghz
Lecture 3 #40
Ad Hoc Networks
Ad hoc network: IEEE 802.11 stations can
dynamically form network without AP
Applications:
“laptop” meeting in conference room, car
interconnection of “personal” devices
battlefield
IETF MANET
(Mobile Ad hoc Networks)
working group
Lecture 3 #41
IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol:
CSMA/CA
802.11 CSMA: sender
- if sense channel idle for
DISF sec.
then transmit entire frame
(no collision detection)
-if sense channel busy
then binary backoff
Lecture 3 #42
IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol
802.11 CSMA Protocol:
others
NAV: Network
Allocation
Vector
802.11 frame has
transmission time field
others (hearing data)
defer access for NAV
time units
Lecture 3 #43
Hidden Terminal effect
hidden terminals: A, C cannot hear each other
obstacles, signal attenuation
collisions at B
Lecture 3 #44
Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS
exchange
CSMA/CA: explicit
channel reservation
sender: send short
RTS: request to send
receiver: reply with
short CTS: clear to
send
CTS reserves channel for
sender, notifying
(possibly hidden) stations
avoid hidden station
collisions
Lecture 3 #45
Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS
exchange
RTS and CTS short:
collisions less likely, of
shorter duration
end result similar to
collision detection
IEEE 802.11 allows:
CSMA
CSMA/CA: reservations
polling from AP
Lecture 3 #46
Point to Point Data Link Control
one sender, one receiver, one link: easier
than broadcast link:
no Media Access Control
no need for explicit MAC addressing
e.g., dialup link, ISDN line
Lecture 3 #49
PPP Data Frame
Flag: delimiter (framing)
Address: does nothing (only one option)
Control: does nothing; in the future possible
multiple control fields
Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame
delivered (eg, PPP-LCP, IP, IPCP, etc)
Lecture 3 #50
PPP Data Frame
info: upper layer data being carried
check: cyclic redundancy check (CRC) for
error detection
Lecture 3 #51
Byte Stuffing
“data transparency” requirement: data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern <01111110>
Q: is received <01111110> data or flag?
Lecture 3 #52
Byte Stuffing
flag byte
pattern
in data
to send
Lecture 3 #53
PPP Data Control Protocol
Before exchanging network-
layer data, data link peers
must
configure PPP link (max.
frame length,
authentication)
learn/configure network
layer information
for IP: carry IP Control
Protocol (IPCP) msgs
(protocol field: 8021) to
configure/learn IP
address
Lecture 3 #54
Data Link: Summary
principles behind data link layer
services:
error detection, correction
sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
link layer addressing, ARP
Lecture 3 #56