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Mechanics of Rigid Bodies
Mechanics of Rigid Bodies
4.1
Rigid body
• Rigid body: a system of mass points subject to the
holonomic constraints that the distances between all
pairs of points remain constant throughout the
motion
0
4.1
The independent coordinates of a rigid
body
• The position of any other third point is determined
by only 1 coordinate, since its distance from the first
and second points is fixed
0
4.1
Orientation of a rigid body
• The position of a rigid body can be described by
three independent coordinates,
iˆ' ˆj '
(iˆ cos 11 ˆj cos 12 kˆ cos 13 ) (iˆ cos 21 ˆj cos 22 kˆ cos 23 )
cos 11 cos 21 cos 12 cos 22 cos 13 cos 23 0
• Performing similar operations for the remaining 4
pairs we obtain orthogonality conditions in a
compact form:
3
cos
l 1
li cos lk ik
4.1
Orthogonal transformations
• For an arbitrary vector G iˆG1 ˆjG2 kˆG3
G ' AG
a a
l 1
li lk ik
4.3
Properties of the transformation matrix
• Introducing a matrix inverse to the transformation
matrix 3
1
AA 1 a
l 1
a ki
kl li
3
• Let us consider a matrix element aij a
k 1
kj ki
3
3 3 3 3
3
akj akl ali akj akl ali ali akj akl
k 1 l 1 k 1 l 1
3
l 1 k 1
ali jl a ji aij
l 1
~ 1
A A
3
• Orthogonality conditions a
k 1
kj akl jl
4.3
Properties of the transformation matrix
~ ~ ~
A A 1 AA AA 1 AA 1
~ ~ 2
AA A A A A A 1 1
A 1
a11 a12 0
A a21 a22 0
0 0 1
2 • With the orthogonality conditions
a
k 1
kj akl jl j , l 1,2
• The total number of independent
coordinates is
4–3=1
4.2
Example: rotation in a plane
• The most natural choice for the independent
coordinate would be the angle of rotation, so that
cos sin 0
A sin cos 0
0 0 1
4.2
Example: rotation in a plane
• The three orthogonality conditions
a11a11 a21a21 1
a12 a12 a22 a22 1
a11a12 a21a22 0
cos 2 sin 2 1
sin 2 cos 2 1
cos sin sin cos 0
4.2
Example: rotation in a plane
cos sin 0
• The 2D transformation matrix
A sin cos 0
• It describes a CCW rotation of 0 0 1
the coordinate axes
1 0 0 x ' '
X Cx' ' 0 cos
sin y ' '
0 sin cos z ' '
4.4
The Euler angles
• Finally, we rotate the system around the Z axis
cos sin 0 X
x BX sin cos 0 Y
0 0 1 Z
x Ax'
4.4
The Euler angles
• The explicit form of the resultant transformation
matrix A is
A BCD
cos cos cos sin sin cos sin cos cos sin sin sin
sin cos cos sin cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin
sin sin sin cos cos
• Proof:(1 α ) A (1 α )(1 α ) 1 α1 1α αα 1
~ ~ α
~ α
• On the other hand: A 1 A 1α 1 α
• Matrices α are antisymmetric
0 d 3 d 2
• In 3D we can write: α d 3 0 d1
d 2 d1 0
• Infinitesimal change of a vector:
3
dr r 'r (1 α )r r αr (dr )i ij rj
j 1
4.8
Infinitesimal rotations
3
0 d3 d 2
(dr )i ij rj
α d 3 0 d1
j 1
d 2 d1 0
3
(dr )1 r2 d 3 r3 d 2 (dr )i ijk r j d k
( d ) n d
(dr ) 2 r3 d1 r1d 3 j , k 1
j 1 j 1
3
3
ij dG j G j ij
3
dGi G j ijk d k dGi
j 1 j 1 k 1 3
ijk G j d k
3
dGi ' dGi G dΩ i j ,k 1
ij ijk d k
k 1
• Dividing by dt
dG ' dG
G ω ωdt dΩ ' G
G G ω
dt dt
4.10
Example: the Coriolis effect
G
G ' ω G ω const
• Velocity vectors in the rotating and in the
“stationary” systems are related as
rs rr ω r v s vr ω r
• For the rate of change of velocity
d ( vr ω r )
( v s ) s (v s ) r ω v s ω ( vr ω r )
dt r
(vr ) r 2ω vr ω (ω r )
ar as 2ω vr ω (ω r )
• Introducing a center of mass: mi ri i mi ri
R i
mi ri MR
i
m i M
i
• We can rewrite the coordinates in the center-of-
mass coordinate system:
ri ri ' R ri ri ' R
• Kinetic energy can be rewritten:
1 2 1
T mi (ri ) mi (ri ' R) (ri ' R )
2 i 2 i
1 1
mi (ri ' ) mi (ri 'R ) mi ( R ) 2
2
2 i i 2 i
1.2
Kinetic energy of a system of particles
1 1
T mi (ri ' ) mi (ri 'R ) mi ( R)
2 2
2 i i 2 i
1 1 2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R) mi
2
2 i i 2 i
1 d 1 2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R) M
2
2 i dt i 2
• On the other hand
mi ri MR mi ri ' MR'
i
i
• In the center-of-mass coordinate
system, the center of mass is at the
origin, therefore
1 1 2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2
2 i 2
1.2
Kinetic energy of a system of particles 5.1
1 1 2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2
2 i 2
5.1
Kinetic energy of a system of particles
• Chasles: we can represent motion of a rigid body as
a combination of a rotation and translation
1 1 2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2
2 i 2
5.3
Rotational kinetic energy
1 1 1
TR mi (ri ' ) mi ri 'ri ' mi (ω ri ' ) (ω ri ' )
2
2 i 2 i 2 i
• Rate of change of a vector ( r ' ) (r ' ) ω r '
i s i r i
3
1 3 3
mi jkl ωk ri 'l jmn ωm ri 'n
2 i
j 1 k ,l 1
m , n 1
5.3
Rotational kinetic energy
jkl jmn
3
1 3 3
3
TR mi jkl ωk ri 'l jmn ωm ri 'n
2 i
j 1 k ,l 1
j 1
m ,n 1 km l n lm kn
3
1
mi jkl jmn ωk ωm ri 'l ri 'n
2 i j ,k ,l ,m,n 1 3
1
mi ( km l n lm kn )ωk ωm ri 'l ri 'n
2 i k ,l ,m ,n 1
1 3 3
mi (ωk ) (ri 'l ) ωk ri 'k ri 'l ωl
2 2
2 i k ,l 1 k ,l 1
1 3 1 3
ω~ Iω
ωk ωl mi [(ri ' ) kl ri 'k ri 'l ] ωk I kl ωl
2
2 k ,l 1 i 2 k ,l 1 2
I kl mi [(ri ' ) kl ri 'k ri 'l ]
2
i
5.3
Inertia tensor and moment of inertia
~ Iω
ω
TR I kl mi [(ri ' ) 2 kl ri 'k ri 'l ]
2 i
ω ωn TR
2 2 2
I ~In
n
• Scalar I is called the moment of inertia
5.3
Inertia tensor and moment of inertia
Iω 2
TR
2
• On the other hand:
1 ω2
TR mi (ω ri ' ) (ω ri ' )
2 i 2
mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
i
• Therefore
I mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
i
k 1 i k 1
L Iω
• Rotational kinetic energy:
~ ~ ~
ωIω ωL Lω
TR
2 2 2
5.5
Free rigid body 5.6
I
k 1
ik ω k
k ,l , m 1
I ωk ωl 0
ikl ml
5.4
Principal axes of inertia
• Inertia tensor is a symmetric matrix
2 i 1
5.4
Principal axes of inertia
• To find the directions of the principal axes we have
to find the directions for the eigenvectors ω
in I i ωi
2
TR n n
2 i 1 2
5.6
Stability of a free rotational motion
• Let us choose the body axes along the principal
axes of a free rotating rigid body
2
ω1
2 ( 3) 2 ( 3) K 0 K ( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 )
I2 I3
5.6
Stability of a free rotational motion
2
ω 1
2 ( 3) 2 ( 3) K 0 K ( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 )
I 2 I3
• The behavior of solutions of this equation depends
on the relative values of the principal moments of
inertia 2 02 ( 3) 2 ( 3)
I1 I 2 ; I 1 I 3
K 0 K 2
I1 I 2 ; I1 I 3
2 ( 3) A2(3) cos( t 2 (3) )
• Always stable
2 (3) 2 2( 3) 0
I 3 I1 I 2
K 0 K 2 2(3) A2(3) e t
I 2 I1 I 3
• Exponentially unstable 2(3) A2(3) et
Classification of tops
• Depending on the relative values of the principle
values of inertia, rigid body can be classified as
follows:
• Asymmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3
• Symmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3
• Spherical top: I1 I 2 I 3
• Rotator: I1 I 2 0; I 3 0
Example: principal axes of a uniform
cube
• Previously, we have found the inertia tensor for a
uniform cube with the origin at one of the corners,
and the coordinate axes along the edges:
2 1 1 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2
3 I
4 4 3 4 4
1 2 1
I Ma 2 Ma 2 2Ma 2
Ma 2
I 0
4 3 4 4 3 4
1 1 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 2
2 Ma
4 I
4 3 4 4 3
• The secular equation:
11Ma 2
2Ma 2 2
M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2Ma 2
I I I 0
12 3 8 4 3
Example: principal axes of a uniform
cube
2Ma 2
2
11Ma 2 M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2Ma 2
I I I 0
12 3 8 4 3
2 2
11Ma 2 11Ma Ma
I1 I2 ; I3
12 12 6
• To find the directions of the principal axes we have
to find the directions for the eigenvectors
Ma 2
• Let us consider I 3
6
ω13
ω 3 ω23
Iω 3 I 3 1ω 3
ω33
Example: principal axes of a uniform
cube
2 Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 2ω13 ω23
ω13 ω23 ω33 ω13 1
3 4 4 6 ω33 ω33
Ma 2 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 ω13 2ω23
ω13 ω23 ω33 ω23 1
4 3 4 6 ω33 ω33
Ma 2 Ma 2 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 ω13 ω23
ω13 ω23 ω33 ω33 2
4 4 3 6 ω33 ω33
ω13 ω23
ω13 ω23 ω33
ω13 ω33
5.6
Free symmetrical top
I1ω 1 ω2 ω3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
3
I i ω i
j , k 1
ijk ω j ωk I k 0 I 2 ω 2 ω1ω3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3ω 3 ω1ω2 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
• For a free symmetrical top:
I1 I 2 I 3 I1ω 1 ω2 ω3 ( I 3 I1 ) 0
I1ω 2 ω1ω3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
ω3 ( I1 I 3 )
ω 1 ω2 I 3ω 3 0
I1
ω3 ( I1 I 3 )
ω 2 ω1
I1
ω3 const ω3 ( I1 I 3 )
2 ω1 A cos t
1 ω1
ω ω1 2 ω2 A sin t
I1
5.5
Motion of non-free rigid bodies
• How to tackle rigid bodies that move in the presence
of a potential or in an open system with generalized
forces (torques)?
fixed
• For this problem, it is convenient to use the Euler
angles as a set of independent variables
ω ; ω ; ω
4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'
0
x
0
0
y A 0
z
sin sin
x
y cos sin
cos
z
cos cos cos sin sin cos sin cos cos sin sin sin
A sin cos cos sin cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin
sin sin sin cos cos
4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'
x
0 y B 0
0 z 0
cos
x
y sin
0
z
cos sin 0
B sin cos 0
0 0 1
4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'
0 x 0 x cos
0
y 0 y sin
z 0
z
• The Lagrangian: L T V
2
T TTranslatio n TRotation I1 (1 2 ) I 33
2 2
2 2
V r gdV g r dV g RM
• Using the Euler angles
V gRM cos
I1 I 2
5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed sin sin cos
cos sin sin
2 cos
I 33
2
I1 (1 2 ) I 3 ( cos
2 2
)
T
2 2 2
V gRM cos
5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
( cos ) 2 2 sin 2 2
L I3 I1 gRM cos
2 2
• The Lagrangian is cyclic in two coordinates
L L
0; 0
• Thus, we have two conserved generalized momenta
L
p I 3 ( cos cos ) I1 ( sin ) const I1b
2
2
L
p I 3 ( cos ) const I1a
5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
( cos ) 2 2 sin 2 2
L I3 I1 gRM cos
2 2
L
• The Lagrangian does not contain time explicitly 0
t
• Thus, the total energy of the system is conserved
( cos ) 2 2 sin 2 2
E I3 I1 gRM cos const
2 2
• To solve the problem completely, we need three
additional quadratures
I1 (b a cos ) 2
Veff ' ( ) gRM cos
2 sin
2 I 3 ( cos ) I a
1
5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
I1 2 d
2
2[ E 'Veff ' ( )]
E' Veff ' ( )
2 dt I1
d
t ( )
2 / I1[ E 'Veff ' ( )]
• In the most general case, the integration involves
elliptic functions
I
R0
M
2 Iω 2 M ( R0 ω) 2
I MR0 TR
2 2