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Introduction
• All forms of water that reach the earth from the
atmosphere is called Precipitation.
• The usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, frost, hail,
dew. Of all these, the first two contribute
significant amounts of water.
• Rainfall being the predominant form of
precipitation causing stream flow, especially the
flood flow in majority of rivers. Thus, in this
context, rainfall is used synonymously with
precipitation.
Formation of
Precipitation
1. Source of moisture
2. Lifting mechanism (frontal, orographic,
convective)
3. Phase change from vapor to water -
Energy
4. Small nuclei or dust for droplet
formation
5. Droplets must grow as they fall to
earth From Bedient
Lifting Mechanisms
From Bedient
Introduction….
• In nature water is present in three aggregation
states:
– solid: snow and ice;
– liquid: pure water and solutions;
– gaseous: vapors under different grades of pressure
and saturation
• Rain:
– Is precipitation in the form of water drops of size
larger than 0.5 mm to 6mm
– The rainfall is classified in to
• Light rain – if intensity is trace to 2.5 mm/h
• Moderate – if intensity is 2.5 mm/hr to 7.5 mm/hr
• Heavy rain – above 7.5 mm/hr
Introduction….
• Snow:
– Snow is formed from ice crystal masses, which usually
combine to form flakes
• Hail (violent thunderstorm)
– precipitation in the form of small balls or lumps
usually consisting of concentric layers of clear ice and
compact snow.
– Hail varies from 0.5 to 5 cm in diameter and can be
damaging crops and small buildings.
Precipitation
• Single strongest variable driving hydrologic
processes
• Formed water vapor in the atmosphere
• As air cools its ability to ‘hold’ water
decreases and some turns to liquid or ice-i.e.
glass condensation (Figure 2.1)
Air Saturation
Weather Patterns
• Weather (day to day) vs. climate (years-
decades and patterns)
• What are hydrologists most concerned with?
• Climate and geography result in biome
classification
Causes of Precipitation
Measurement of Precipitation
• Terminology (2.3)
• Types of devices (2.4.2)
• Snowfall conversions (2.4.1)
• Location of devices (2.4)
• Interpretation of data (2.3.3, 2.6)
Rainfall Terminology
• Type-hail, rain, snow, sleet
• Depth
• Storm Duration
• Average rate of precipitation-Intensity
• Return Period or Recurrence Interval
2.3. Measurement of Rainfall
Precipitation gauge
1 - pole
2 - collector
3 - support- galvanized
metal sheet
4 – funnel
5 - steel ring
The tele-rain-gauge
1 - collecting funnel 2 -
tilting baskets
3 - electric signal
4 - evacuation
4. Radar measurement of rainfall
From Bedient
Raingauge Network
Snow Pillow
Location of Gages
Square Miles
5 10
10 15
100 50
300 100
Interpretation of Data
• Time distributions
• Area distributions
– Using point data to find average rainfall
– Thiessen method
2.2 Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall
14
Rainfall Intensity, cm/hr
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time, min
Long term Precipitation variation at Arba Minch
45
40
Annual rainfall, mm
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Years
Annual Precipitation
average precipitation
Storm Patterns (Histograms)
Figure 2.14
2.4 Preparation of Data
• Before using rainfall data, it is necessary to check the
data for continuing and consistency
– Missing data
– Record errors
4
Mc c
3.5
a
3
2.5
c Ma a
2
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Accumulated annual rainf all of neigbouring stns in 10^3 mm
P1 P2 ..... Pi .....Pn 1 N
P
N
N
P
i 1
i
Method of Thiessen polygons
P7
P6
A7
A6
P2
A2
A1
A8 A5
P1
P8 P5
A3 A4
P3
P4
Thiessen polygons ……….
P1 A1 P2 A2 ..... Pm Am
P
A1 A2 ..... Am
Generally for M station
M
PA i i M
Ai
P i 1
Atotal
i 1
Pi
A
Ai
The ratio is called the weightage factor of station i
A
Isohyetal Method
• An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude. 10.0
8
D
6 C a5
12
9.2
12
a4
7.0 a3
4 B
7.2
A
a2 E 10.0
9.1
4.0 a1
F
6
4
Isohyetal Method
P1 P2 P2 P3 Pn1 Pn
a1 a2 ... an1
2 2 2
P
A
NOTE
The isohyet method is superior to the other two methods
especially when the stations are large in number.
Rain-Gage Area Correction Factor
Storm duration
1
Fraction of Point Rainfall
24 hours
0.9
0.8 6 hours
3 hours
0.7
0.6 1 hour
30 min
0.5
0 500 1000
Area (Square km)
Technical Paper 40 NOAA
Hyetograph IDF ….
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0–8 8 – 16 16 – 24 24 – 32 32 – 40 40 – 48
Time, hours
IDF Curve ….
x
kT i – Intensity (cm/hr)
i D – Duration (hours)
14
T = 25 years
12
Intesity, cm/hr
T = 50 years
10 T = 100 years
8
6 k = 6.93
4 x = 0.189
2 a = 0.5
n = 0.878
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Duration, hr
Prediction-Frequency Distributions
• To plan and design projects must be able to
predict probability of rainfall events
• Duration, Intensity, Return Period
• Often must estimate Return Periods
• Use Hazen method to develop intensity-
duration-frequency curve (Example 2.5).
Table 2.6
Annual Precip. for LA, CA 1934-1953
Year Depth (in) Rank Depth (in) Year
1934 14.6 1 32.8 1941
1935 21.7 2 26.2 1952
1936 12.1 3 23.4 1938
1937 22.4 4 22.4 1937
1938 23.4 5 21.7 1935 You have determined that
1939 13.1 6 19.2 1940 more than 23.4” of annual
1940 19.2 7 19.2 1944 rainfall will result in a net
1941 32.8 8 18.2 1943 Economic loss for your
1942 11.2 9 14.6 1934 crop.
Now, you need to predict
1943 18.2 10 13.1 1939
1944 19.2 11 12.7 1947 How often this will occur .
1945 11.6 12 12.1 1936
1946 11.6 13 11.6 1945
1947 12.7 14 11.6 1946
1948 7.2 15 11.2 1942
1949 8 16 10.6 1950
1950 10.6 17 9.5 1953
1951 8.2 18 8.2 1951
1952 26.2 19 8 1949
1953 9.5 20 7.2 1948
Table 2.6
Annual Precip. for LA, CA 1934-1953
Year Depth (in) Rank Depth (in) Year
1934 14.6 1 32.8 1941
1935 21.7 2 26.2 1952
1936 12.1 3 23.4 1938
1937 22.4 4 22.4 1937
1938 23.4 5 21.7 1935
1939 13.1 6 19.2 1940
1940 19.2 7 19.2 1944
1941 32.8 8 18.2 1943
1942 11.2 9 14.6 1934
1943 18.2 10 13.1 1939
1944 19.2 11 12.7 1947
1945 11.6 12 12.1 1936
1946 11.6 13 11.6 1945
1947 12.7 14 11.6 1946
1948 7.2 15 11.2 1942
1949 8 16 10.6 1950
1950 10.6 17 9.5 1953
1951 8.2 18 8.2 1951
1952 26.2 19 8 1949
1953 9.5 20 7.2 1948
Equation 2.2, page 46
For Example:
Year 1938--23.4 in--Rank #3
100 (2*3-1) = 12.5
2*20
Table 2.6
Annual Precip. for LA, CA 1934-1953
Year Depth (in) Rank Depth (in) Year Prob. F a
1934 14.6 1 32.8 1941 2.5
1935 21.7 2 26.2 1952 7.5
1936 12.1 3 23.4 1938 12.5
1937 22.4 4 22.4 1937 17.5
1938 23.4 5 21.7 1935 22.5
1939 13.1 6 19.2 1940 27.5
1940 19.2 7 19.2 1944 32.5
1941 32.8 8 18.2 1943 37.5
1942 11.2 9 14.6 1934 42.5
1943 18.2 10 13.1 1939 47.5
1944 19.2 11 12.7 1947 52.5
1945 11.6 12 12.1 1936 57.5
1946 11.6 13 11.6 1945 62.5
1947 12.7 14 11.6 1946 67.5
1948 7.2 15 11.2 1942 72.5
1949 8 16 10.6 1950 77.5
1950 10.6 17 9.5 1953 82.5
1951 8.2 18 8.2 1951 87.5
1952 26.2 19 8 1949 92.5
1953 9.5 20 7.2 1948 97.5
100
Return Period=
Fa
For Example:
Year 1938-- Fa= 12.5
100 = 8 yrs
12.5
r LA, CA 1934-1953
Depth (in) Year Prob. F a Return Period
32.8 1941 2.5 40.0
26.2 1952 7.5 13.3
23.4 1938 12.5 8.0
22.4 1937 17.5 5.7
21.7 1935 22.5 4.4
19.2 1940 27.5 3.6
19.2 1944 32.5 3.1
18.2 1943 37.5 2.7
14.6 1934 42.5 2.4
13.1 1939 47.5 2.1
12.7 1947 52.5 1.9
12.1 1936 57.5 1.7
11.6 1945 62.5 1.6
11.6 1946 67.5 1.5
11.2 1942 72.5 1.4
10.6 1950 77.5 1.3
9.5 1953 82.5 1.2
8.2 1951 87.5 1.1
8 1949 92.5 1.1
7.2 1948 97.5 1.0
Frequency-Magnitude Graph
Predict probability of a given return period
storm occurring within a given number of years
P = 1 - ( 1 - 1/8 )5
= 49%
Another Ex. If T =100, n=10 then P=9.56%
if T=20, n=20 then P= 64%
Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
Rainfall Rate-Duration-Frequency
Figure 2.19