Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

Third Edition
CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
2 MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
Lecture Notes:
Stress and Strain
– Axial Loading
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf
Contents
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading Generalized Hooke’s Law

Normal Strain Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Stress-Strain Test Shearing Strain
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials Example 2.10
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials Relation Among E, , and G
Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity Sample Problem 2.5
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior Composite Materials
Fatigue Saint-Venant’s Principle
Deformations Under Axial Loading Stress Concentration: Hole
Example 2.01 Stress Concentration: Fillet
Sample Problem 2.1 Example 2.12
Static Indeterminacy Elastoplastic Materials
Example 2.04 Plastic Deformations
Thermal Stresses Residual Stresses
Poisson’s Ratio Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16
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Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in

the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics
analyses alone are not sufficient.
• Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member

forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate.
• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires

consideration of deformations in the member.
• Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under

axial loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending
loads.
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Normal Strain
P 2P P
  stress  
A 2A A
 
   normal strain 
L L
• Normal strain in a rod under axial loading: P

deformation of the member per unit length, denoted A
by the Greek letter ε. 2 
 
2L L
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Normal Strain
we define the normal strain at

point Q as
The normal strain ε is a

dimensionless quantity.
A bar of length L= 0.600 m and uniform cross section, which undergoes a

deformation δ=150×10-6m. The corresponding strain is:

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Normal Strain
A bar of length L= 0.600 m and uniform cross section, which undergoes a
deformation δ=150×10-6m. The corresponding strain is:
The deformation could have been expressed in micrometers: δ=150μm. We

would then have written:
250 micros

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Stress-Strain Test
gage marks L0
L0: gage length
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Stress-Strain Test
Stress-strain diagrams of various materials vary widely, and different tensile tests
conducted on the same material may yield different results, depending upon the
temperature of the specimen and the speed of loading.
We can distinguish some common characteristics among the stress-strain
diagrams of various groups of materials and to divide materials into two broad
categories on the basis of these characteristics, namely, the ductile materials and
the brittle materials.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel, as well as many alloys of

other metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures.
As the specimen is subjected to an increasing load, its length first increases
linearly with the load and at a very slow rate.
After a critical value σY of the stress has been reached, the specimen
undergoes a large deformation with a relatively small increase in the applied
load.
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After a certain maximum value of the load has been reached, the
diameter of a portion of the specimen begins to decrease, because of local
instability. This phenomenon is known as necking.
After necking has begun, somewhat lower loads are sufficient to keep
the specimen elongating further, until it finally ruptures.
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Shear is primarily responsible for the failure of ductile materials.

Under an axial load, shearing stresses are largest on surfaces forming an
angle of 45°with the load.
Yield strength: the stress σY at which yield is initiated.
Ultimate strength: the stress σU corresponding to the maximum load

applied to the specimen.
Breaking strength: the stress σB corresponding to rupture. 2 - 11
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Brittle materials are characterized by the fact that rupture occurs without any
noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation.
Rupture occurs along a surface perpendicular to the load.
Normal stresses are primarily responsible for the failure of brittle materials.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Yield Stress
upper yield point: which corresponds to the load reached just before yield
starts.
lower yield point: which corresponds to the load required to maintain
yield.
The upper yield point is transient, the lower yield point should be
used to determine the yield strength of the material.
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In the case of aluminum and of many other
ductile materials, the onset of yield is not
characterized by a horizontal portion of the stress-
strain curve.
The yield strength σY can be defined by the
offset method.
The yield strength at 0.2% offset is obtained by
drawing through the point of the horizontal axis of
abscissa ε=0.2%, a line parallel to the initial
straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram.
The stress σY corresponding to the point Y
obtained in this fashion is defined as the yield
strength at 0.2% offset.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductility of Materials

A standard measure of the ductility of a material is its percent
elongation, which is defined as:
LB  L0
Percent elongation=100
L0
Another measure of ductility which is sometimes used is the percent
reduction in area, defined as:
A0  AB
Percent reduction in area=100
A0
Because the elongation is not uniform over the length of the specimen but
is concentrated in the region of necking, the percent elongation depends
upon the gage length. Therefore, when stating the percent elongation, the
gage length should always be given.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductility of Materials
engineering stress:
engineering strain:
true stress:
true strain:
Stress-strain diagram for a typical ctural steel in

tension(not to scale)
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Compression

The stress-strain curve of a specimen made of a ductile material were loaded in
compression is essentially the same through its initial straight-line portion and
through the beginning of the portion corresponding to yield and strain-hardening.
For a given steel, the yield strength is the same in both tension and compression.
For larger values of the strain, the tension and compression stress-strain curves
diverge, and it should be noted that necking cannot occur in compression.
For most brittle materials, the ultimate strength in compression is much larger
than the ultimate strength in tension.
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Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity
• Below the yield stress

  E
E  Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity
• The largest value of the stress for which Hooke’s law can be used for a
given material is known as the proportional limit of that material.
• In the case of ductile materials possessing a well-defined yield point, the
proportional limit almost coincides with the yield point.
• For other materials, the proportional limit cannot be defined as easily, for
such materials that using Hooke’s law for values of the stress slightly
larger than the actual proportional limit will not result in any significant
error.
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 - 18
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• Some of the physical properties of

structural metals, such as strength,
ductility, and corrosion resistance, can be
greatly affected by alloying, heat
treatment, and the manufacturing process
used, but stiffness (Modulus of Elasticity)
is not.
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• The mechanical properties of each
material, including its modulus of
elasticity E, are independent of the
direction considered. Such materials are
said to be isotropic.
• Materials whose properties depend upon
the direction considered are said to be
anisotropic.
• An important class of anisotropic materials
consists of fiber-reinforced composite
materials. These composite materials are
obtained by embedding fibers of a strong,
stiff material into a weaker, softer material,
referred to as a matrix.

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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

• If the strain disappears when the load is
removed, the material is said to behave
elastically.
• The largest stress for which this occurs
is called the elastic limit.
• When the strain does not return to zero
after the load is removed, the material
is said to behave plastically.
• For most materials, the plastic deformation depends not only upon the
maximum value reached by the stress, but also upon the time elapsed before
the load is removed.
• The stress-dependent part of the plastic deformation is referred to as slip,
and the time-dependent part—which is also influenced by the temperature
—as creep.
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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
• If, after being loaded and unloaded, the test

specimen is loaded again. The proportional
limit and the elastic limit have increased as a
result of the strain-hardening that occurred
during the earlier loading of the specimen.
However, the ductility of the specimen has
decreased.
• Bauschinger effect
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 - 22

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Fatigue
• Repeated loads are commonly associated
with machinery, engines, turbines,
generators, shafts, propellers, airplane parts,
automobile parts, and the like. Some of these
structures are subjected to millions (and even
billions) of loading cycles during their useful
life.
• A structure subjected to dynamic loads is
likely to fail at a lower stress than when the
same loads are applied statically, especially
when the loads are repeated for a large
number of cycles. In such cases failure is
usually caused by fatigue, or progressive
fracture.
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Fatigue
• Fatigue: when loadings are repeated thousands or millions of times, rupture
will occur at a stress much lower than the static breaking strength.
• A fatigue failure is of a brittle nature, even for materials that are normally
ductile.
• Fatigue properties are shown on

σ-n diagrams.
• A member may fail due to fatigue

at stress levels significantly
below the ultimate strength if
subjected to many loading cycles.
• When the stress is reduced below

the endurance limit, fatigue
failures do not occur for any
number of cycles.
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Deformations Under Axial Loading

• From Hooke’s Law:
 P
  E  
E AE
• From the definition of strain:


L
• Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL
 
AE
Be used only if the rod is homogeneous(constant E),

has a uniform cross section of area A, and is loaded
at its ends.
• With variations in loading, cross-section or
material properties,
Pi Li
 
i Ai Ei
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Deformations Under Axial Loading
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Example 2.01
A1  580mm 2 A 2  190mm 2
SOLUTION:
120kN • Divide the rod into components at
300kN 180kN
the load application points.
400mm
300mm 300mm
• Apply a free-body analysis on
E  200GPa each component to determine the
internal force
• Evaluate the total of the component

Determine the deformation of deflections.
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.
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SOLUTION: • Apply free-body analysis to each

• Divide the rod into three component to determine internal forces,
components: P1  240kN=240 103 N
P2  -60kN=-60 103 N
P3  120kN=120 103 N
120kN
300kN 180kN
• Evaluate total deflection,
120kN
PL 1  PL P L P L 
  i i
  1 1 2 2 3 3
i Ai Ei E  A1 A2 A3 
120kN
180kN 1   240 103  0.3  60 103  0.3  120 103  0.4 
    
200 109  580  10-6 580 10 -6 190 10 -6 
 
120kN  1.729 10-3 m
300kN 180kN
L1  L2  0.3m L3  0.4m   1.729 103 m

A1  A2  580mm 2 A3  190mm 2
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When both ends of a rod move, however,

the deformation of the rod is measured by
the relative displacement of one end of the
rod with respect to the other.
Denoting this relative displacement by δB/A
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Sample Problem 2.1
SOLUTION:
• Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
• Evaluate the deformation of links
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two AB and DC or the displacements of
links AB and CD. B and D.
Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 • Work out the geometry to find the

GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500 deflection at E given the deflections
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200 at B and D.
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of
(600 mm2).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.
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Sample Problem 2.1
SOLUTION: Displacement of B:
PL
Free body: Bar BDE B 
AE
  60  103 N  0.3 m 

500 10-6 m2 70 109 Pa 
 514 10 6 m
 B  0.514 mm 
MB  0
Displacement of D:
0   30 kN  0.6 m   FCD  0.2 m
PL
D 
FCD  90 kN tension AE
 MD  0  90 103 N  0.4 m 
0   30 kN  0.4 m   FAB  0.2 m

600 10-6 m2 200 109 Pa 
FAB  60 kN compression  300 10 6 m
 D  0.300 mm 
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Sample Problem 2.1
Displacement of D:
BB BH

DD HD
0.514 mm  200 mm   x

0.300 mm x
x  73.7 mm
EE  HE

DD HD
E

 400  73.7  mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
 E  1.928 mm
 E  1.928 mm 
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Static Indeterminacy
• Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are said
to be statically indeterminate.
• A structure will be statically indeterminate

whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.
• Redundant reactions are replaced with

unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.
• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

reactions are determined separately and then added
or superposed.
  L R  0
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Static Indeterminacy
Denoting by P1 and P2, respectively, the axial
forces in the rod and in the tube, we draw
free-body diagrams of all three elements.
The geometry of the problem shows that

the deformations δ1 and δ2 of the rod and
tube must be equal:

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Example 2.04
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.
SOLUTION:
• Consider the reaction at B as redundant, release
the bar from that support, and solve for the
displacement at B due to the applied loads.
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the

redundant reaction at B.
• Require that the displacements due to the loads

and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be zero.
• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads

and the reaction found at B.
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Example 2.04
SOLUTION:
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads with the redundant constraint released,
P1  0 P2  P3  600  103 N P4  900 103 N
A1  A2  400 10 6 m 2 A3  A4  250 10 6 m 2

L1  L2  L3  L4  0.150 m
Pi Li 1.125  109
L   
A
i i iE E
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant

constraint,
P1  P2   RB
A1  400 10  6 m 2 A2  250  10 6 m 2

L1  L2  0.300 m
δR  
Pi Li


1.95 103 RB 
A
i i iE E
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Example 2.04
• Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to

the redundant reaction be compatible,
  L R  0
  
 
1.125  109 1.95 103 RB
0
E E
RB  577 103 N  577 kN
• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

 Fy  0  R A  300 kN  600 kN  577 kN
R A  323 kN
R A  323 kN
RB  577 kN
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Thermal Stresses
• A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
• the rod elongates by an amount ΔT which is
proportional to both the temperature change ΔT and
the length L of the rod
 T    T  L  T    T 
  thermal expansion coef.
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Thermal Stresses
• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply

the principle of superposition.
PL
 T    T  L P 
AE
• The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
  T   P  0   T   P  0
P   AE  T 
PL
  T  L  0 P
AE     E  T 
A
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Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x  x  y z  0
E
• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y  z  0
• An important constant for a given material is

its Poisson’s ratio
• Poisson’s ratio is defined as
lateral strain y z
  
axial strain x x
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Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,
the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small
• With these
restrictions:
  
x   x  y  z
E E E
  
y   x  y  z
E E E
  
z   x  y  z
E E E
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Shearing Strain
• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will
deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,
 xy  G xy
• When the deformation involves a reduction of the

angle formed by the two faces oriented respectively
toward the positive x and y axes, the shearing strain
γxy is said to be positive;
• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar the
previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
 xy  G  xy  yz  G  yz  zx  G  zx
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus. It is less than one-half, but more than one-
third of the modulus of elasticity E of that material.
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Shearing Strain
• For the general stress condition represented in Fig. 2.41, and as long
as none of the stresses involved exceeds the corresponding
proportional limit, we can apply the principle of superposition and
combine the results obtained in this section and in Sec. 2.12. We
obtain the following group of equations representing the generalized
Hooke’s law for a homogeneous isotropic material under the most
general stress condition.
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Example 2.10
SOLUTION:
• Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
A rectangular block of material with
modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is • Use the definition of shearing stress to
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates. find the force P.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and b)
the force P exerted on the plate.
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• Determine the average angular deformation

or shearing strain of the block.
0.04 in.
 xy  tan  xy   xy  0.020 rad
2 in.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.
 
 xy  G xy  90 103 psi  0.020 rad   1800 psi
• Use the definition of shearing stress to

find the force P.
P   xy A  1800 psi  8 in. 2.5 in.  36 103 lb
P  36.0 kips
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Relation Among E, and G

• An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in
top figure will deform into a rectangular
parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in the
bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear
strain.
• Components of normal and shear strain are
related,
E
 1   
2G
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Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.
• Concentrated loads result in large

stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.
• Stress and strain distributions

become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.
• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
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Stress Concentration: Hole
Discontinuities of cross section may result in  max

K
high localized or concentrated stresses.  ave
Stress concentration factors can be computed once and for all in terms of the
ratios of the geometric parameters involved, and the results obtained can be
expressed in the form of tables or of graphs.
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Stress Concentration: Fillet
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Example 2.12
SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
Determine the largest axial load P
that can be safely supported by a • Find the allowable average normal
flat steel bar consisting of two stress using the material allowable
portions, both 10 mm thick, and normal stress and the stress
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide, concentration factor.
connected by fillets of radius r = 8 • Apply the definition of normal stress
mm. Assume an allowable normal to find the allowable load.
stress of 165 MPa.
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• Determine the geometric ratios and

find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
D 60 mm r 8 mm
  1.50   0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K  1.82
• Find the allowable average normal

stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
 max 165 MPa
 ave    90.7 MPa
K 1.82
• Apply the definition of normal stress

to find the allowable load.
P  A ave   40 mm 10 mm  90.7 MPa 
 36.3 103 N
P  36.3 kN
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Plastic Deformations
 A • Elastic deformation while maximum

P   ave A  max
K stress is less than yield stress
• Maximum stress is equal to the yield

 A
PY  Y stress at the maximum elastic
K
loading
• At loadings above the maximum

elastic load, a region of plastic
deformations develop near the hole
• As the loading increases, the plastic
PU   Y A region expands until the section is at
 K PY a uniform stress equal to the yield
stress
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Homework 1
• The 4-mm-diameter cable BC is made of a steel with E=200 GPa. Knowing
that the maximum stress in the cable must not exceed 190 MPa and that the
elongation of the cable must not exceed 6 mm, find the maximum load P that
can be applied as shown.

Edition
Third
Homework 2
• A 1.35-m concrete post is reinforced with six steel bars, each with a 28-mm
diameter. Knowing that Es = 200GPa, and Ec =29GPa, determine the normal
stresses in the steel and in the concrete when a 1560-kN axial centric force P
is applied to the post.
0.45m
1.35m
2 - 54

Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

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Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

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Third Edition

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Stress & Strain: Axial Loading Generalized Hooke’s Law

Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in

• Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member

• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires

• Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under

we define the normal strain at

The normal strain ε is a

A bar of length L= 0.600 m and uniform cross section, which undergoes a

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The deformation could have been expressed in micrometers: δ=150μm. We

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

L0: gage length

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel, as well as many alloys of

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Shear is primarily responsible for the failure of ductile materials.

Ultimate strength: the stress σU corresponding to the maximum load

Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

Stress-Strain Diagram: Yield Stress

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductility of Materials

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductility of Materials

Stress-strain diagram for a typical ctural steel in

Stress-Strain Diagram: Compression

Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity

• Below the yield stress

Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity

• Some of the physical properties of

Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

• If, after being loaded and unloaded, the test

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 - 22

• Fatigue properties are shown on

• A member may fail due to fatigue

• When the stress is reduced below

Deformations Under Axial Loading

Be used only if the rod is homogeneous(constant E),

Deformations Under Axial Loading

• Evaluate the total of the component

SOLUTION: • Apply free-body analysis to each

L1  L2  0.3m L3  0.4m   1.729 103 m

When both ends of a rod move, however,

Sample Problem 2.1

Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 • Work out the geometry to find the

Sample Problem 2.1

Sample Problem 2.1

• A structure will be statically indeterminate

• Redundant reactions are replaced with

• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

The geometry of the problem shows that

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Solve for the displacement at B due to the

• Require that the displacements due to the loads

• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads

A1  A2  400 10 6 m 2 A3  A4  250 10 6 m 2

• Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant

A1  400 10  6 m 2 A2  250  10 6 m 2