E E M C Lectronic Quipments For Easuring and Ontrol

Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” from Iaşi
Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology
E
lectronic
E quipments for
M easuring and
C ontrol
Course nr. 2
STRUCTURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTS FOR ELECTRONICS
EQUIPMENTS FOR MEASURING AND CONTROL
General characteristics for elements in

electronic equipments for measuring and
control
For each of the electronics can be ascertained functional dependence

between physical quantities involved in its operation.
Most often there are two basic sizes describing the operation of the
element. One of these can be considered the cause of action and the
other effect materializes. Which is due to variations in size is called
input quantity x and expressing its effect size is called output value y.
Functional dependence of the output quantity y size input x regime

steady stationary element can be expressed by equation (1.2):
y= f ( x ) (1.2)
that feature is called static transfer characteristic.
COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Steady state theory assumes a stationary element infinite time setting

(from the application of the input quantity until it stabilizes output
size). The condition is theoretically impossible to use in practice, so
that equilibration described stationary conditions much less
restrictive.
The analysis tool that describes the static characteristic can draw
some conclusions and give classifications of items.
Course nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Items that have linear static characteristics are called beams.
The static characteristic is expressed by a linear function of the form (1.3):
y= a+k x (1.3)
where a is a constant which is the size of the output quantity y, and k

is a constant (slope), which is the size of y / x.
COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Graphical representation of linear static characteristic is given in Fig. 1.3.
y= a+k x
y
β = arctg k
a
x
0
Fig. 1.3
Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

When the static characteristic is not a linear function is called

nonlinear element. There are many types of nonlinearities of elements
with specific names related to math function static characteristic.

In fig. 1.4 data type features two types of nonlinear characteristics.

Corresponds with elements characteristic of sensitivity threshold (size
of input must vary by ± ε because begin to vary output size).
b is a feature of a more general nonlinearity which highlights some
key points. Thus, continuously varying the input quantity x from xmin
to xmax, corresponds to a continuous variation of the output quantity y
from ymin to ymax.
y xmin y
ymax
-ε x
+ε ymin
x
xmin xmax
a b
Fig. 1.4

xmin and xmax values or limits ymax and ymax is working range of
the item. Working range on measuring input x is given by (1.4):
x = x max - x min (1.4)
Working range referenced to the output quantity y is defined by

equation (1.5):
y = y max - y min (1.5)

In reality static characteristics of the elements are more or less linear.

A linear characteristic feature is an idealization of the actual,
necessary and sufficient in most cases to design the electronic
device.
Analysis and synthesis of linear elements is much simpler than those
nonlinear. To determine the linear feature closest to the actual feature
element proceed as follows:

a. Determine the ranges of values that will work item.
y
Real characteristic
Fig. 1.5
Course nr. 2 Static characteristic for elements

b. Choose right and plot that best fit the actual feature of the item
using a criterion determined.
The most common is the criterion of least squares, which minimize
the sum of squares of the deviations of the right vertical chosen to
curve or actual data.
y
The near linear
aproximation
y
Real characteristic
Fig. 1.5

c. We will establish that:
  y    x     xy    x 
2 N xy    x    y 
a (1.6) k (1.7)
N x    x 
2 2
N x 2   x 
2
y
The near linear
aproximation
y
Real characteristic
β = arctg k
x
a
x
Fig. 1.5

  y    x     xy    x 
2
N xy    x    y 
a (1.6) k (1.7)
N x    x 
2 2
N x 2   x 
2
where N is the number of points obtained by measuring (or chosen on

the curve) to draw the line and x and y are the input values and output
these points.
y
Near linear
aproximation
y
Real characteristic
β = arctg k
x
a
x
Fig. 1.5

d. Verify quantities x and y variations on this line remain within a point

early on.
y
aproximaţia
liniară cea mai
apropiată
y
caracteristica reală
β = arctg k
x
a
x
Fig. 1.5

Among the specific qualitative performance indices element for slow

variations of the input quantity (quasi-stationary regime), Indices
resulting from the static characteristic of the element are:

Transfer coefficient:
1. The ratio of the output range of the element size and the size of the
input range, in which case it is called a transfer medium or static
coefficient ks and is defined by equation (1.8):
y
ks= (1.8)
x
Course 0nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

2. The ratio of the output quantity dy variation (Δy) and the input
quantity variance dx (Dx), in which case it is called coefficient
differential transfer kd and is defined by (1.9):
dy y
kd =  (1.9)
dx x
The values of ks and kd transfer coefficients depend on the function
y = f (x) and generally varies differently to changes in the quantities x
and y. In the particular case of a linear static characteristics passing
through the origin transfer coefficients are constant and equal
portions to all the values of x and y.
For some specific function performed transfer coefficient takes on a
special meaning and a name.

For transducers, the transfer coefficient is called sensitivity:
y
Ss= (1.10)
x
The differential sensitivity is:
d y y
Sd =  (1.11)
d x x

The size depends on the sensitivity of the outputs and input, μV / °C

(from thermocouple) Ω / °C (the thermal resistance), A / lm (to
photovoltaic transducer PV).
In order to characterize the relative sensitivity of the transducer is
Used performance, as defined by the ratio (1.12) :
y / y
Sr = (1.12)
x / x
Meaning that the ratio between the relative variation of the output
quantity and the relative variation of the input quantity. This kind of
approach allows transducers for measuring the comparative study of
the same size, but based on different physical principles. The relative
susceptibility is a dimensionless value.

At amplifiers, the transfer coefficient represents the gain. It can be

expressed as mean or differential Gs Gd. For electronic amplifiers
where x and y are voltage, current, power may be used magnifications,
average and differential, voltage, current or power.

The stationary operation of the elements is a very particular situation.

In practice, subject to the measurement or control sizes vary over
time.
It's called dynamic regime element operating state the size of input x,
and therefore the output quantity y varies over time. Under these
conditions, due to the inertia in response, change in the output
quantity y does not seek input x instantly size variation, but remains in
a somewhat behind in time, which makes it appear the error dynamic
element.

We can illustrate the essence of dynamic operating regime elements

on a case simple and evocative, a temperature measurement.
Suppose we want to pursue the process of heating a small amount of

water (a few cm3) using a high power heat source (heating is fast).
Heating is the initial 0C temperature to boiling.
If we use a mercury thermometer having its few mm3 tank capacity of

Hg, that we take from room temperature (20C), subject to the entry of
the water heating process from the time the indication tends to fall
(being as instantaneous value greater than the actual water
temperature). As the water is heated, the rate of decay of the
indication of the thermometer reduced.

At one point the thermometer indication corresponds to the actual

instantaneous water. After that, thermometer indication is increasing,
but given the inertia (due to their heat capacity of the thermometer),
the indicated value is less than the actual value.
Thus it was revealed not followed between water temperature in the

heating and indicated value. This error is all the greater as the report
quantities of water (subject warming) and mercury (tank thermometer)
is lower.

If for measuring water temperature using a semiconductor

thermometer in which the active element (crystal semiconductor) with
mount to (capsule) have a heat capacity much lower than the
thermometer mercury error Unwatched is reduced, the measured
value is more closer to the actual value.
A graphical representation of the process as described above is
shown in fig. 1.6.

Temp [ ºC ]
100 water
80 Semiconductor
thermometre
60 Ideal dynamic
response
40 Hg thermometre
20
t [s]
0
10 20
Fig. 1.6
Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics of elements

The dynamic behavior of the system is given by the dynamic

characteristic of the element, resulting from the differential equation,
according to the equation (1.13).
(n) (m)
F ( y , y , y , ... y , x , x , x , ... x , t) = 0 (1.13)
Most often limited quantities variations around nominal values x0 and

y0. In these situations equation (1.13) can linearize and written form
(1.14).
n m
d y dy d x dx
an n
+ ... + a1 + a0 y = bm m
+ ...+ b1 + b0 x (1.14)
dt dt dt dt
Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics for elements

For real physical elements of the type described by equations (1.14),

then m > n. Virtually any item described by a differential equation of
high order.
In reality, the higher order terms have a low weight and can be
neglected. This raises an idealization of the dynamic behavior of the
element as a model that does not stray very far from reality.
Decreasing order differential equation has the advantage of reducing
complexity essential analysis and synthesis systems operating in
dynamic conditions.
Most of the elements of electronic devices are characterized by
dynamic linear differential equations of order 1 (aperiodic elements) or
2nd order linear differential equations.
Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics for elements

Using the Laplace transformance the dynamic characteristic

of elements is:
( a n p n + a n-1 p n-1 + ...+ a 0 ) Y = ( b m p m + b m-1 p m-1 + ...+ b0 ) X (1.15)
The transfer function of elements is:
Y bm p m + b m-1 p m-1 + ...+ b0

K ( p )= = n n -1 (1.16)
X an p + a n -1 p + ...+ a0

When x = X.sinωt, the transfer function is:
m
bm ( j  ) + ... + b1 ( j ) + b0
K ( j  )= n (1.17)
an ( j  ) + ... + a1 ( j ) + a0
The expression corresponds to the characteristic frequency amplitude
A (ω) and phase frequency φ (ω), as shown in (1.18) The expression
corresponds to the characteristic frequency amplitude A(ω) and phase
frequency φ(ω), as shown in (1.18)
K ( j ) = A (  ) e j (  )
(1.18)

Methods for dynamic properties and study elements to answer other

signals: step signal, ramp, pulse, Dirac, etc.
Integrating the differential equation of the dynamic behavior of the
element for different types of input data can draw important
conclusions on the response of studied element.
Because the study dynamic operating regime is more difficult
(requires integration of differential equations, sometimes quite
complex) must set out clearly the conditions under which the item has
a good dynamic response. For it will study the dynamic response of a
typical size for input.
Thus, identification of air targets - very fast - will be essential to a
radar impulse response and signal level. Based on the study the
dynamic response of the element can draw conclusions that will
improve performance through proper selection of components,
redesigning blocks, provision of dynamic corrections, etc.
Course nr. 2 Dynamic charactersistics for elements

Electronic
Equipments for
Measuring and
Control
Course nr. 2
STRUCTURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENTS FOR MEASURING AND CONTROL
Errors of elements
Because measuring actual conditions in place the best working

characteristic of an item appears an area of existence of static
characteristic, conditional on static errors.
In fig. 1.7 shows the transfer characteristic of a centrifugal regulator to
adjust the ignition advance in spark ignition engines.
β [ ˚ RAC]
Ideal characteristic
The existance zone for
static characteristic
30
Real characteristic
n [rot/min]
750 2000
Fig. 1.7
Course nr. 2 The quantity mode for static errors

The manufacturer of this device for the product ensures that any copy
(individual statistic) has a feature that falls in the transfer of existence
specified.
The emergence of this degree of uncertainty regarding the transfer
characteristic cause some complications in the design, use and
maintenance. Thus, the designer must ensure that the most
disadvantaged in cases of transfer function of an element of individual
performance parameters of the overall product will not suffer.
Bringing the final product performance parameters required and

keeping them throughout the service must be available for adequate
control.

In order to comply with the foregoing, it is necessary to evaluate the

errors static elements. It uses the following parameters:
Δy absolute error is the difference between the measured value of the
output quantity and the ideal value or true yr y0, according to the
relation (1.19):
 y = y r - y0 (1.19)
This way of treating the problem of static errors can highlight certain
aspects, but do not provide a sufficient description of the
performance.
Assuming that measure a voltage with a 10V absolute error can not
say that measurement is accurate or not. If this error occurs when
measuring voltage of 100 V, obviously accuracy is low, but if it relates
to a voltage of 10,000 V, a very high accuracy.

Therefore there is a need to use a reporting afford:
δy relative error which is the ratio of the absolute error Δy and the
ideal value (true) y0, according to the relation (1.20):
y
 y ( % )= 100 (1.20)
y0

For the full range of size variation of output relative error ranges (with
specific values for each operating point). For this reason the relative
error, although more accurately describe perormanţele machine, do
not provide comprehensive information on the operation.
For if we care about overall performance, use:
Precision Class P or Class which is (usually) the ratio between the

maximum absolute error (Δy) and max range has given element.
Expression is usually a percentage, according to the relation (1.21):
(  y )max
P ( % )= 100 (1.21)
y

Of the value of accuracy class can draw some important conclusions

for the user.
It considers such measure voltage with a voltmeter available in
accuracy class 1% on the scale of 100 V.
It follows that the maximum absolute error that can occur anywhere
within the measuring range, has a value (Δy) max = 1 V.
Depending on the value that is intended to be measured relative error
δy vary. So if measuring a voltage of 1 V, the relative error can acquire
100% value.
If a voltage of 100V is measured relative error can receive a maximum
of 1%.
It can be concluded that the best performances are highlighted device
if the measurement is made as close to the upper limit of the variation
in the input.

All of the above discussion relates to static error of the output

quantity. Often arises the need for appreciation relative to the size of
entry.
For these situations specified usable sensitivity or sensitivity
threshold. It's called usable sensitivity or sensitivity threshold of the
minimum variation of the input quantity x that produces a variation of
the output quantity y at least equal to the absolute error element.
This amount is the lower limit of the variation in size of an input

element senses with some degree of certainty. This way of treating the
problem and taking into account the previously discussed that the
certainty of the sensitivity threshold refers to a relative error of the
output quantity of 100%.

Sensitivity threshold is the size of the input quantity x. In the

construction elements it is desirable that the threshold of sensitivity
to be as low as possible. This condition allows addressing input
quantities as low.
Also, it is usual that the amount of the changes in the input quantity of
the element x in the normal operation several times exceed the
threshold of sensitivity.
Thus, if the lower limit of the variation in the size of entry is 10 times
greater than the sensitivity threshold, its contribution to the relative
error is 10%, and if it is 20 times larger contribution is reduced to 5% .

The sensitivity threshold is characterized by a whole-some

items. In some of the output amplifiers are no transducers or output
parasitic different sizes, such as: noise, voltage imbalances, voltage
drift, etc., even in the absence of the input signal. In this case the
sensitivity threshold is the level Tof noise or himself this slow drift
voltage referred to input element because it is the minimum that must
take the input signal to produce the output variation certainly
noticeable.

Let’s take the example of an operational amplifier for which is given a

10 mV offset voltage (for input).
If this amplifier is used in reaction and gain is 50, (without in initial
compensation of the offset), a voltage of 50  10 = 500 mV will appear
at the output, even when the input signal is zero.
Any input signal which causes a variation for the output signal smaller
then 500 mV, can’t be identified because such a variation is from the
offset voltage. So there is a good function condition: the low limit for
the input signal variation must be bigger or equal to offset voltage
(catalog).
COURSE nr. 2 The quantity mode for static errors

The static error that appears when all the measuring conditions are
unchanged between some limits (standard conditions) and are caused
to intern limits of the element or the measuring device is called
instrumental error, constructive or fundamental.
The static errors that appear when the measuring conditions differ
from standard conditions are called additional errors.
Depending on the type of deviation from standard operating

conditions, meet additional errors in temperature, pressure, voltage or
frequency power etc. Once because it produces, acquires error
instrumental specific names. The most common are:
Course nr. 2 Instrumental error and additional

error
Nonlinearity error represents the deviation of the actual characteristic

element to ideal feature when it is right. It is usually expressed as
relative percent.
Hysteresis error appears due to dry frictions, mechanic hysteresis or

magnetic hystheresis, cinematic devices, etc., which make a different
static characteristic in growing, respectively lowering input quantity.
Calibration error. Calibration is a marking operation, adjustment and

verification of static characteristics (scale) item or appliance that fits
into standard accepted. Calibration errors are lower if the check is in
the range points (1/3 ... 2/3) xmax and not at the ends of the scale (0 to
xmax).
Course nr. 2 Instrumental error and additional error

Zero drift is defined as the deviation of the output quantity, usually

expressed as equivalent deviation in input when the input size is zero
or constant.
Drift of sensitivity is similar zero drift, but finding the maximum value
xmax, measurable element given the assumption that zero drift has
been previously corrected.
Derived from zero and drift sensitivity can lead to serious
disadvantages in operation, therefore taking a number of precautions,
such as using signals calibration that are inserted manually or
automatically applying some principles build from specific such be
employing differential floors floors with direct coupling, modulation-
demodulation of amplifiers. Sensitivity drift can be prevented by using
a strong negative reaction.
Course nr. 2 Instrumental error and additional error

The noise is a disturbing action, the same nature with the

electric signal and contains the uses information which is over the
signal and deforms it.
The noises are very different and can be classified as follows:
- After the variation in time:

-narrow spectrum frequency noises;
- impulse noises (eg impulse noise due to ignition from spark-
ignition engines);
- fluctuation noises.
Course nr. 2 Noises errors

- After the origins:
- External noises: interference with an adjacent channel,

induction to the mains, because industrial electrical
installations, mechanical vibration or acoustic etc.;
- Internal noises: the thermal motion, the shot, contacts,
dithering, etc.
Electrical outdoor noises are called electro-magnetic interference. The

noise level of the lower end of the inner condition of a signal which
can be treated with a given device.
Course nr. 2 Noises error

For decreased effect of exterior noise, there are two basic methods:
Isolation, by electrostatic and magnetic shielding, avoiding large

temperature gradients that may cause the t.e.m., use differential
inputs, the introduction of offset voltage, input circuits removal of the
feeding, filtering chargers etc. These simple measures used correctly,
lead to improved performance sensitive, with a significant price
increase, but assuming a perfect mastery of design techniques, based
on the accumulation of experience.
Frequency discrimination involves using elements selective to filter

the signal, leaving only usefull signal. Using this principle implies
changing and complicated schemes, but most often means the radical
solution of the problem of electromagnetic disturbances.

For example: an IR multi-channel system with remote control.
Useful Information coding is done in the form of the PWM pulses,

whose frequency lies in the dozens ... hundreds of Hz.
Over useful signals in the form of infrared radiation pulses, captured

and converted into an electrical signal by the photodetector receiver
overlaps particularly low frequency hum (50 or 100 Hz). It goes by
mixing the two signals the emergence of a new signal which will
seriously affect the operation of decoding.
To avoid this, discrimination frequency was adopted, low-frequency

pulses when the transmitter modulates a carrier of 40 KHz. The
receiver has the two-story entrance selective amplification, acoradate
on 40 KHz, so hum is strongly rejected and the system is performing.

Optimizing performance involved isolation. Such circuits were

separately shielded, and the entire amplifier was shilded.
A particular attention was paid to GND routes, using the star

configuration, thus avoiding closure of current output circuits (of
relatively high) via a route that includes input floors.
Becouse input sensitivity is equivalent to a few μV, this avoids the

appearance of lower voltages. Otherwise, it establishes a coupling
between input and output, possibly in a scheme equivalent to a
positive reaction which compromise the operation (appearance,
"hanging").

Installing errors appear becouse of incorrect installing or use of the

devices.
The incorrect installing can be dictated by temperature (by

overheating or cooling beyond the limits of the equipment), vibrations
and sounds (squeaking occurrence, especially in tubes), etc.
Course nr. 2 Installing errors

As an example of disturbance of the measurement by measuring the

voltage measuring element is in a high impedance circuit using a low
internal impedance voltmeter.
Thus, if measured voltage divider with two resistors of equal value
100 kΩ powered at a voltage of 15 V by using a voltmeter to the
internal impedance of 100 kΩ, instead of 7.5 V (as is the actual value),
to obtain a indication 5 V.
This occurs because the internal impedance voltmeter 100 KΩ
resistance appears in parallel with the divider 100 KΩ. It actually
forms a divider with values of 100 KΩ - 50 KΩ, powered by 15 V, the
voltage reading on the strength of 50 KΩ, so a third of the supply
voltage instead half. This situation is represented in Fig. 1.8.

15 V 15 V 15 V
100 kΩ 100 kΩ 100 kΩ
7,5 V 5V
100 kΩ 100 kΩ
V (100 kΩ
Rin = 50 kΩ 
100 kΩ)
100 kΩ
Fig. 1.8

Operation errors may be due to adjustment, calibration errors,

incorrect reading of the scale, etc. These errors are therefore due to
the human factor, as a manifestation of carelessness, ignorance or
other causes all devices subjective characteristics. Some of this error
can be eliminated by the provision of automation of the measuring
equipment, such as for example the automatic switching of the scale.
Course nr. 2 Operation errors

Method of measuring errors are subject to errors theoretical method

used. Can be reduced by choosing the most suitable method for
measuring range of values early and can be eliminated by subsequent
corrections (calculations).
Course nr. 2 Method of measuring errors

 y t = f ( xt ) - y ( t )
Dynamic errors occur in varying sizes measuring a quick time to time

constants of the measuring device.
Instant dynamic error Δyt can be defined as in equation (1.22):
 y t = f ( xt ) - y ( t ) (1.22)
where:
f(xt ) is the output value y in the static characteristic for the input value
xt at t moment;
y(t) in the real instant value for output at t moment.
Course nr. 2 Dynamic errors

 y = f ( )- y( t )
t xt
Dynamic errors can be reduced by:
● choosing the correct time constant;
● using the dynamic corrections
Course nr. 2 Dynamic errors

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Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” from Iaşi

Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology

General characteristics for elements in

For each of the electronics can be ascertained functional dependence

Functional dependence of the output quantity y size input x regime

COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Steady state theory assumes a stationary element infinite time setting

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Items that have linear static characteristics are called beams.

The static characteristic is expressed by a linear function of the form (1.3):

where a is a constant which is the size of the output quantity y, and k

COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Graphical representation of linear static characteristic is given in Fig. 1.3.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

When the static characteristic is not a linear function is called

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

In fig. 1.4 data type features two types of nonlinear characteristics.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

x = x max - x min (1.4)

Working range referenced to the output quantity y is defined by

y = y max - y min (1.5)

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

In reality static characteristics of the elements are more or less linear.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

a. Determine the ranges of values that will work item.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristic for elements

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

c. We will establish that:

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

where N is the number of points obtained by measuring (or chosen on

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

d. Verify quantities x and y variations on this line remain within a point

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Among the specific qualitative performance indices element for slow

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Course 0nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

For transducers, the transfer coefficient is called sensitivity:

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

The size depends on the sensitivity of the outputs and input, μV / °C

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

At amplifiers, the transfer coefficient represents the gain. It can be

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

The stationary operation of the elements is a very particular situation.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

We can illustrate the essence of dynamic operating regime elements

Suppose we want to pursue the process of heating a small amount of

If we use a mercury thermometer having its few mm3 tank capacity of

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

At one point the thermometer indication corresponds to the actual

Thus it was revealed not followed between water temperature in the

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

If for measuring water temperature using a semiconductor

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics of elements

The dynamic behavior of the system is given by the dynamic

Most often limited quantities variations around nominal values x0 and

Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics for elements

For real physical elements of the type described by equations (1.14),

Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics for elements

Using the Laplace transformance the dynamic characteristic

( a n p n + a n-1 p n-1 + ...+ a 0 ) Y = ( b m p m + b m-1 p m-1 + ...+ b0 ) X (1.15)