AEMC Prelegerea 2 Engl Correct

Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” from Iaşi
Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology
E
lectronic
Equipment for
Measuring and
Control
Course nr. 2
STRUCTURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTS FOR ELECTRONICS
EQUIPMENTS FOR MEASURING AND CONTROL
General characteristics of elements in

electronic equipment for measuring and
control
For each of the electronics can be ascertained functional

dependence between physical quantities involved in its
operation.
Most often there are two basic sizes describing the operation
of the element. One of these can be considered the cause of
action and the other effect materializes. Which is due to
variations in size is called input quantity x and expressing its
effect size is called output value y.
Functional dependence of the output quantity y size input x
regime steady stationary element can be expressed by
equation (1.2):
y= f ( x ) (1.2)
that feature is called static transfer characteristic.
COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Steady state theory assumes a stationary element infinite time

setting (from the application of the input quantity until it
stabilizes output size). The condition is theoretically
impossible to use in practice, so that equilibration described
stationary conditions much less restrictive.
The analysis tool that describes the static characteristic can

draw some conclusions and give classifications of items.
Course nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Items that have linear static characteristics are called beams.
The static characteristic is expressed by a linear function of the form

(1.3):
y= a+k x (1.3)
where a is a constant which is the size of the output quantity y,

and k is a constant (slope), which is the size of y / x.
COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Graphical representation of linear static characteristic is given in fig.

1.3.
y= a+k x
y
β = arctg k
a
x
0
Fig. 1.3
Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

When the static characteristic is not a linear function is called

nonlinear element. There are many types of nonlinearities of
elements with specific names related to math function static
characteristic.

In fig. 1.4 there are two types of nonlinear characteristics.

Corresponds with elements characteristic of sensitivity threshold (size
of input must vary by ± ε because begin to vary output size).
b is a feature of a more general nonlinearity which highlights some
key points. Thus, continuously varying the input quantity x from xmin
to xmax, corresponds to a continuous variation of the output quantity y
from ymin to ymax.
y xmin y
ymax
-ε x
+ε ymin
x
xmin xmax
a b
Fig. 1.4

xmin and to xmax values or limits from ymin and from ymax is
working range of the item. Working range on measuring input x
is given by (1.4):
x = x max - x min (1.4)
Working range referenced to the output quantity y is defined by

equation (1.5):
y = y max - y min (1.5)

In reality static characteristics of the elements are more or less

linear. A linear characteristic feature is an idealization of the
actual, necessary and sufficient in most cases to design the
electronic device.
Analysis and synthesis of linear elements is much simpler than

those nonlinear. To determine the linear feature closest to the
actual feature element proceed as follows:

a. Determine the ranges of values that will work item.
y
Real characteristic
Fig. 1.5
Course nr. 2 Static characteristic for elements

b. Choose right and plot that best fit the actual feature of the
item using a criterion determined.
The most common is the criterion of least squares, which
minimize the sum of squares of the deviations of the right
vertical chosen to curve or actual data.
y
The near linear
aproximation
y
Real characteristic
Fig. 1.5

c. We establish that:
  y    x     xy    x 
2 N xy    x    y 
a (1.6) k (1.7)
N x    x 
2 2
N x 2   x 
2
y
The near linear
aproximation
y
Real characteristic
β = arctg k
x
a
x
Fig. 1.5

  y    x     xy    x 
2
N xy    x    y 
a (1.6) k (1.7)
N x    x 
2 2
N x 2   x 
2
where N is the number of points obtained by measuring (or

chosen on the curve) to draw the line and x and y are the input
values and output these points.
y
Near linear
aproximation
y
Real characteristic
β = arctg k
x
a
x
Fig. 1.5

d. Verify quantities x and y variations on this line remain within

a point early on.
y
aproximaţia
liniară cea mai
apropiată
y
caracteristica reală
β = arctg k
x
a
x
Fig. 1.5

Among the specific qualitative performance indices element for

slow variations of the input quantity (quasi-stationary regime),
Indices resulting from the static characteristic of the element
are:

Transfer coefficient:
1. The ratio of the output range of the element size and the size
of the input range, in which case it is called a transfer medium
or static coefficient ks and is defined by equation (1.8):
y
ks= (1.8)
x
Course 0nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

2. The ratio of the output quantity dy variation (Δy) and the

input quantity variance dx (Dx), in which case it is called
coefficient differential transfer kd and is defined by (1.9):
dy y
kd =  (1.9)
dx x
The values of ks and kd transfer coefficients depend on the function
y = f (x) and generally varies differently to changes in the quantities x
and y. In the particular case of a linear static characteristics passing
through the origin transfer coefficients are constant and equal
portions to all the values of x and y.
For some specific function performed transfer coefficient takes on a

special meaning and a name.

For transducers, the transfer coefficient is called sensitivity:
y
Ss= (1.10)
x
The differential sensitivity is:
d y y
Sd =  (1.11)
d x x

The size depends on the sensitivity of the outputs and input, μV / °C

(from thermocouple) Ω / °C (the thermal resistance), A / lm (to
photovoltaic transducer PV).
In order to characterize the relative sensitivity of the transducer is
Used performance, as defined by the ratio (1.12) :
y / y
Sr = (1.12)
x / x
Meaning that the ratio between the relative variation of the output
quantity and the relative variation of the input quantity. This kind of
approach allows transducers for measuring the comparative study of
the same size, but based on different physical principles. The relative
susceptibility is a dimensionless value.

At amplifiers, the transfer coefficient represents the gain. It can

be expressed as mean or differential Gs Gd. For electronic
amplifiers where x and y are voltage, current, power may be
used magnifications, average and differential, voltage, current
or power.

The stationary operation of the elements is a very particular

situation. In practice, subject to the measurement or control
sizes vary over time.
It's called dynamic regime element operating state the size of

input x, and therefore the output quantity y varies over time.
Under these conditions, due to the inertia in response, change
in the output quantity y does not seek input x instantly size
variation, but remains in a somewhat behind in time, which
makes it appear the error dynamic element.

We can illustrate the essence of dynamic operating regime

elements on a case simple and evocative, a temperature
measurement.
Suppose we want to pursue the process of heating a small
amount of water (a few cm3) using a high power heat source
(heating is fast). Heating is the initial 0°C temperature to
boiling.
If we use a mercury thermometer having its few mm3 tank
capacity of Hg, that we take from room temperature (20°C),
subject to the entry of the water heating process from the time
the indication tends to fall (being as instantaneous value
greater than the actual water temperature). As the water is
heated, the rate of decay of the indication of the thermometer
reduced.

At one point the thermometer indication corresponds to the

actual instantaneous water. After that, thermometer indication
is increasing, but given the inertia (due to their heat capacity of
the thermometer), the indicated value is less than the actual
value.
Thus it was revealed not followed between water temperature

in the heating and indicated value. This error is all the greater
as the report quantities of water (subject warming) and
mercury (tank thermometer) is lower.

If for measuring water temperature using a semiconductor

thermometer in which the active element (crystal
semiconductor) with mount to (capsule) have a heat capacity
much lower than the thermometer mercury error Unwatched is
reduced, the measured value is more closer to the actual value.
A graphical representation of the process as described above

is shown in fig. 1.6.

Temp [ ºC ]
100 water
80 Semiconductor
thermometre
60 Ideal dynamic
response
40 Hg thermometre
20
t [s]
0
10 20
Fig. 1.6
Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics of elements

The dynamic behavior of the system is given by the dynamic

characteristic of the element, resulting from the differential
equation, according to the equation (1.13).
F ( y , y , y , ... y( n ) , x , x , x , ... x( m ) , t) = 0 (1.13)
Most often limited quantities variations around nominal values

x0 and y0. In these situations equation (1.13) can linearize and
written form (1.14).
n m
d y dy d x dx
an n
+ ... + a1 + a0 y = bm m
+ ...+ b1 + b0 x (1.14)
dt dt dt dt
Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics for elements

For real physical elements of the type described by equations

(1.14), then m > n. Virtually any item described by a differential
equation of high order.
In reality, the higher order terms have a low weight and can be
neglected. This raises an idealization of the dynamic behavior
of the element as a model that does not stray very far from
reality. Decreasing order differential equation has the
advantage of reducing complexity essential analysis and
synthesis systems operating in dynamic conditions.
Most of the elements of electronic devices are characterized by

dynamic linear differential equations of order 1 (non periodic
elements) or 2nd order linear differential equations.
Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics for elements

Using the Laplace transform the dynamic characteristic

of elements is:
( a n p n + a n-1 p n-1 + ...+ a 0 ) Y = ( b m p m + b m-1 p m-1 + ...+ b0 ) X (1.15)
The transfer function of elements is:
Y bm p m + b m-1 p m-1 + ...+ b0

K ( p )= = n n -1 (1.16)
X an p + a n -1 p + ...+ a0

When x = X.sinωt, the transfer function is:

m
bm ( j  ) + ... + b1 ( j ) + b0
K ( j  )= n (1.17)
an ( j  ) + ... + a1 ( j ) + a0
The expression corresponds to the characteristic frequency
amplitude A (ω) and phase frequency φ (ω), as shown in (1.18)
The expression corresponds to the characteristic frequency
amplitude A(ω) and phase frequency φ(ω), as shown in (1.18)
K ( j ) = A (  ) e j (  )
(1.18)

Methods for dynamic properties and study elements to answer other

signals: step signal, ramp, pulse, Dirac, etc.
Integrating the differential equation of the dynamic behavior of the
element for different types of input data can draw important
conclusions on the response of studied element.
Because the study dynamic operating regime is more difficult
(requires integration of differential equations, sometimes quite
complex) must set out clearly the conditions under which the item has
a good dynamic response. For it will study the dynamic response of a
typical size for input.
Thus, identification of air targets - very fast - will be essential to a
radar impulse response and signal level. Based on the study the
dynamic response of the element can draw conclusions that will
improve performance through proper selection of components,
redesigning blocks, provision of dynamic corrections, etc.
Course nr. 2 Dynamic charactersistics for elements

E lectronic
E quipment for
M easuring and
C ontrol
Course nr. 2
STRUCTURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENTS FOR MEASURING AND CONTROL
Errors of elements
Because measuring actual conditions in place the best working

characteristic of an item appears an area of existence of static
characteristic, conditional on static errors.
In fig. 1.7 shows the transfer characteristic of a centrifugal regulator to
adjust the ignition advance in spark ignition engines.
β [ ˚ RAC]
Ideal characteristic
The existence zone for
static characteristic
30
Real characteristic
n [rot/min]
750 2000
Fig. 1.7
Course nr. 2 The quantity mode for static errors

The manufacturer of this device for the product ensures that

any copy (individual statistic) has a feature that falls in the
transfer of existence specified.
The emergence of this degree of uncertainty regarding the
transfer characteristic cause some complications in the design,
use and maintenance. Thus, the designer must ensure that the
most disadvantaged in cases of transfer function of an element
of individual performance parameters of the overall product
will not suffer.
Bringing the final product performance parameters required
and keeping them throughout the service must be available for
adequate control.

In order to comply with the foregoing, it is necessary to

evaluate the errors static elements. Parameters used:
Δy absolute error is the difference between the measured value
of the output quantity and the ideal value or true yr y0,
according to the relation (1.19):
 y = y r - y0 (1.19)
This way of treating the problem of static errors can highlight
certain aspects, but do not provide a sufficient description of
the performance.
Assuming that measure a voltage with a 10V absolute error can not
say that measurement is accurate or not. If this error occurs when
measuring voltage of 100 V, obviously accuracy is low, but if it relates
to a voltage of 10,000 V, a very high accuracy.

Therefore there is a need to use a reporting afford:
δy relative error which is the ratio of the absolute error Δy and

the ideal value (true) y0, according to the relation (1.20):
y
 y ( % )= 100 (1.20)
y0

For the full range of size variation of output relative error

ranges (with specific values for each operating point). For this
reason the relative error, although more accurately describe
the machine performances, do not provide comprehensive
information on the operation.
For if we care about overall performance, use:
Precision Class P or Class which is (usually) the ratio between

the maximum absolute error (Δy) and max range has given
element. Expression is usually a percentage, according to the
relation (1.21):
(  y )max
P ( % )= 100 (1.21)
y
Of the value of accuracy class can draw some important conclusions

for the user.
It considers such measure voltage with a voltmeter available in
accuracy class 1% on the scale of 100 V.
It follows that the maximum absolute error that can occur anywhere
within the measuring range, has a value (Δy) max = 1 V.
Depending on the value that is intended to be measured relative error
δy vary. So if measuring a voltage of 1 V, the relative error can acquire
100% value.
If a voltage of 100V is measured relative error can receive a maximum
of 1%.
It can be concluded that the best performances are highlighted device
if the measurement is made as close to the upper limit of the variation
in the input.

All of the above discussion relates to static error of the output

quantity. Often arises the need for appreciation relative to the size of
entry.
For these situations specified usable sensitivity or sensitivity
threshold. It's called usable sensitivity or sensitivity threshold of the
minimum variation of the input quantity x that produces a variation of
the output quantity y at least equal to the absolute error element.
This amount is the lower limit of the variation in size of an input

element senses with some degree of certainty. This way of treating the
problem and taking into account the previously discussed that the
certainty of the sensitivity threshold refers to a relative error of the
output quantity of 100%.

Sensitivity threshold is the size of the input quantity x. In the

construction elements it is desirable that the threshold of
sensitivity to be as low as possible. This condition allows
addressing input quantities as low.
Also, it is usual that the amount of the changes in the input
quantity of the element x in the normal operation several times
exceed the threshold of sensitivity.
Thus, if the lower limit of the variation in the size of entry is 10

times greater than the sensitivity threshold, its contribution to
the relative error is 10%, and if it is 20 times larger contribution
is reduced to 5% .

The sensitivity threshold is characterized by a whole-

some items. In some of the output amplifiers are no
transducers or output parasitic different sizes, such as: noise,
voltage imbalances, voltage drift, etc., even in the absence of
the input signal. In this case Tthe sensitivity threshold is the
level of noise or himself this slow drift voltage referred to input
element because it is the minimum that must take the input
signal to produce the output variation certainly noticeable.

Let’s take the example of an operational amplifier for which is

given a 10 mV offset voltage (for input).
If this amplifier is used in reaction and gain is 50, (without in
initial compensation of the offset), a voltage of 50  10 = 500
mV will appear at the output, even when the input signal is
zero.
Any input signal which causes a variation for the output signal
smaller then 500 mV, can’t be identified because such a
variation is from the offset voltage. So there is a good function
condition: the low limit for the input signal variation must be
bigger or equal to offset voltage (catalog).
COURSE nr. 2 The quantity mode for static errors

The static error that appears when all the measuring conditions
are unchanged between some limits (standard conditions) and
are caused to intern limits of the element or the measuring
device is called instrumental error, constructive or
fundamental.
The static errors that appear when the measuring conditions
differ from standard conditions are called additional errors.
Depending on the type of deviation from standard operating

conditions, meet additional errors in temperature, pressure,
voltage or frequency power etc.
Once because it produces, acquires error instrumental
specific names. The most common are:
Course nr. 2 Instrumental error and additional

error
Nonlinearity error represents the deviation of the actual

characteristic element to ideal feature when it is right. It is
usually expressed as relative percent.
Hysteresis error appears due to dry frictions, mechanic
hystheresis or magnetic hystheresis, cinematic devices, etc.,
which make a different static characteristic in growing,
respectively lowering input quantity.
Calibration error. Calibration is a marking operation,

adjustment and verification of static characteristics (scale) item
or appliance that fits into standard accepted. Calibration errors
are lower if the check is in the range points (1/3 ... 2/3) xmax
and not at the ends of the scale (0 to xmax).
Course nr. 2 Instrumental error and additional error

Zero drift is defined as the deviation of the output quantity,

usually expressed as equivalent deviation in input when the
input size is zero or constant.
Drift of sensitivity is similar zero drift, but finding the maximum
value xmax, measurable element given the assumption that
zero drift has been previously corrected.
Derived from zero and drift sensitivity can lead to serious
disadvantages in operation, therefore taking a number of
precautions, such as using signals calibration that are inserted
manually or automatically applying some principles build from
specific such be employing differential floors with direct
coupling, modulation-demodulation of amplifiers. Sensitivity
drift can be prevented by using a strong negative reaction.
Course nr. 2 Instrumental error and additional error

The noise is a disturbing action, the same nature with

the electric signal and contains the uses information which is
over the signal and deforms it.
The noises are very different and can be classified as
follows:
- After the variation in time:
-narrow spectrum frequency noises;
- impulse noises (e.g. impulse noise due to ignition
from spark-ignition engines);
- fluctuation noises.
Course nr. 2 Noises errors

- After the origins:

- External noises: interference with an adjacent channel,
induction to the mains, because industrial electrical
installations, mechanical vibration or acoustic etc.;
- Internal noises: the thermal motion, the shot, contacts,
dithering, etc.
Electrical outdoor noises are called electro-magnetic

interference. The noise level of the lower end of the inner
condition of a signal which can be treated with a given device.
Course nr. 2 Noises error

For decreased effect of exterior noise, there are two methods:

Isolation, by electrostatic and magnetic shielding, avoiding
large temperature gradients that may cause the e.m.v., use
differential inputs, the introduction of offset voltage, input
circuits removal of the feeding, filtering chargers etc. These
simple measures used correctly, lead to improved
performance sensitive, with a significant price increase, but
assuming a perfect mastery of design techniques, based on
the accumulation of experience.
Frequency discrimination involves using elements selective to
filter the signal, leaving only useful signal. Using this principle
implies changing and complicated schemes, but most often
means the radical solution of the problem of electromagnetic
disturbances.

For example: an IR multi-channel system with remote control.
Useful Information coding is done in the form of the PWM

pulses, whose frequency lies in the dozens ... hundreds of Hz.
Over useful signals in the form of infrared radiation pulses,
captured and converted into an electrical signal by the photo
detector receiver overlaps particularly low frequency hum (50
or 100 Hz). It goes by mixing the two signals the emergence of
a new signal which will seriously affect the operation of
decoding.
To avoid this, discrimination frequency was adopted, low-
frequency pulses when the transmitter modulates a carrier of
40 KHz. The receiver has the two-story entrance selective
amplification, acordate on 40 KHz, so hum is strongly rejected
and the system is performing.

Optimizing performance involved isolation. Such circuits were

separately shielded and the entire amplifier is shielded.
A particular attention was paid to GND routes, using the star

configuration, thus avoiding closure of current output circuits
(of relatively high) via a route that includes input floors.
Because input sensitivity is equivalent to a few μV, this avoids

the appearance of lower voltages. Otherwise, it establishes a
coupling between input and output, possibly in a scheme
equivalent to a positive reaction which compromise the
operation (appearance, "hanging").

Installing errors appear because of incorrect installing or use

of the devices.
The incorrect installing can be dictated by temperature (by
overheating or cooling beyond the limits of the equipment),
vibrations and sounds (squeaking occurrence, especially in
tubes), etc.
Course nr. 2 Installing errors

As an example of disturbance of the measurement by

measuring the voltage measuring element is in a high
impedance circuit using a low internal impedance voltmeter.
Thus, if measured voltage divider with two resistors of equal
value 100 kΩ powered at a voltage of 15 V by using a voltmeter
to the internal impedance of 100 kΩ, instead of 7.5 V (as is the
actual value), to obtain a indication 5 V.
This occurs because the internal impedance voltmeter 100 KΩ
resistance appears in parallel with the divider 100 KΩ. It
actually forms a divider with values of 100 KΩ - 50 KΩ,
powered by 15 V, the voltage reading on the strength of 50 KΩ,
so a third of the supply voltage instead half. This situation is
represented in fig. 1.8.

15 V 15 V 15 V
100 kΩ 100 kΩ 100 kΩ
7,5 V 5V
100 kΩ 100 kΩ
V (100 kΩ
Rin = 50 kΩ 
100 kΩ)
100 kΩ
Fig. 1.8

Operation errors may be due to adjustment, calibration errors,

incorrect reading of the scale, etc.
These errors are therefore due to the human factor, as a
manifestation of carelessness, ignorance or other causes all
devices subjective characteristics.
Some of this error can be eliminated by the provision of
automation of the measuring equipment, such as for example
the automatic switching of the scale.
Course nr. 2 Operation errors

Method of measuring errors are subject to errors theoretical

method used.
Can be reduced by choosing the most suitable method for
measuring range of values early and can be eliminated by
subsequent corrections (calculations).
Course nr. 2 Method of measuring errors

Dynamic errors occur in varying sizes measuring a quick time

to time constants of the measuring device.
Instant dynamic error Δyt can be defined as in equation (1.22):
 y t = f ( xt ) - y ( t ) (1.22)
where:
f(xt ) is the output value y in the static characteristic for the
input value xt at t moment;
y(t) in the real instant value for output at t moment.
Course nr. 2 Dynamic errors

 y = f ( )- y( t )
t xt
Dynamic errors can be reduced by:
● choosing the correct time constant;
● using the dynamic corrections
Course nr. 2 Dynamic errors

AEMC Prelegerea 2 Engl Correct

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Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” from Iaşi

Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology

General characteristics of elements in

For each of the electronics can be ascertained functional

COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Steady state theory assumes a stationary element infinite time

The analysis tool that describes the static characteristic can

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Items that have linear static characteristics are called beams.

The static characteristic is expressed by a linear function of the form

where a is a constant which is the size of the output quantity y,

COURSE nr. 2 Static characteristics of elements

Graphical representation of linear static characteristic is given in fig.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

When the static characteristic is not a linear function is called

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

In fig. 1.4 there are two types of nonlinear characteristics.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

x = x max - x min (1.4)

Working range referenced to the output quantity y is defined by

y = y max - y min (1.5)

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

In reality static characteristics of the elements are more or less

Analysis and synthesis of linear elements is much simpler than

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

a. Determine the ranges of values that will work item.

Course nr. 2 Static characteristic for elements

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

where N is the number of points obtained by measuring (or

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

d. Verify quantities x and y variations on this line remain within

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Among the specific qualitative performance indices element for

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Course 0nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

2. The ratio of the output quantity dy variation (Δy) and the

For some specific function performed transfer coefficient takes on a

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

For transducers, the transfer coefficient is called sensitivity:

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

The size depends on the sensitivity of the outputs and input, μV / °C

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

At amplifiers, the transfer coefficient represents the gain. It can

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

The stationary operation of the elements is a very particular

It's called dynamic regime element operating state the size of

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

We can illustrate the essence of dynamic operating regime

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

At one point the thermometer indication corresponds to the

Thus it was revealed not followed between water temperature

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

If for measuring water temperature using a semiconductor

A graphical representation of the process as described above

Course nr. 2 Static characteristics for elements

Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics of elements

The dynamic behavior of the system is given by the dynamic

Most often limited quantities variations around nominal values

Course nr. 2 Dynamic characteristics for elements

For real physical elements of the type described by equations

Most of the elements of electronic devices are characterized by