Part – 3C - Propagation E M Waves or Radio

Wave Propagation

1
 Radio Wave Propagation
• The theory of Electro-magnetic radiation was propounded by the British
physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1857 and finalized in 1873.

• It is the fundamental mathematical explanation of the behavior of

electromagnetic waves.

• Electromagnetic waves are energy propagated through free space at the

velocity of light, which is approximately 300 meters per micro-second.

• Also, the direction of the electric field,

the magnetic field and propagation are
mutually perpendicular in electro-magnetic
waves,

2
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Once a radio signal has been radiated by an antenna, it travels or propagates
through space and ultimately reaches the receiving antenna.

• The energy level of the signal decreases rapidly with distance from the
transmitting antenna.

• The electro-magnetic wave is also affected by objects that it encounters

along the way such as trees, buildings, and other large structures.

• In addition, the path that an electromagnetic signal takes to a receiving

antenna depends upon many factors, including the frequency of the signal,
atmospheric conditions, and time of day.

• All these factors are taken into account to predict the propagation of radio waves
from transmitter to receiver. 3
 Radio Wave Propagation
Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves

• Radio waves act very much as light waves do. Understanding the optical
nature of radio waves gives a better feel for how they are propagated over
long distances.
Light waves can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and focused by
other objects.
The focusing of waves by antennas to make them more concentrated
in a desired direction is comparable to a lens focusing light waves into a
narrower beam.

4
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Reflection
• Any conducting surface looks like a mirror to a radio wave, and so radio waves
are reflected by any conducting surface they encounter along a propagation
path. All metallic objects reflect radio waves, especially if the metallic object
is at least one-half wavelength at the frequency of operation.

• Any metallic object on a transmission path, such as building parts, water towers,
automobiles, airplanes, and even power lines, causes some refl ection.
Reflection is also produced by other partially conductive surfaces, such
as the earth and bodies of water.

• Radio wave reflection follows the principles of light wave reflection i.e. the
angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

5
 Radio Wave Propagation
• The radio wave is shown as a wave
front. To simplify the drawing, only the
electrical lines of force, designated by
arrows, are shown.

• Since there are no perfect conductors in

the real world, the reflection is never
complete. But if the reflecting surface is
a good conductor, such as copper or
aluminum, most of the wave is reflected.

• As Fig. shows, the direction of the electric field approaching the reflecting
surface is reversed from that of leaving the surface. The reflection process
reverses the polarity of a wave. This is equivalent to a 180° phase shift.

6
 Radio Wave Propagation
Refraction.
• Refraction is the bending of a wave due to the physical makeup of the
medium through which the wave passes. The speed of a radio wave, is
approximately 300,000,000 m/s (186,400 mi/s) in free space, i.e., in a vacuum
or air.
• As a radio wave travels through free space, it encounters air of different
densities, and variation in the density depends on the degree of ionization
(caused by an overall gain or loss of electrons). This change of air density
causes the wave to be bent.

• Since the speed of a wave in a vacuum is almost the same as the speed
of a wave in air, the index of refraction for air is very close to 1. The index
of refraction for any other medium will be greater than 1, with how much
greater depending upon how much the wave speed is slowed.

7
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Fig. shows how a wave is refracted. The
incident wave from a transmitter travels
through air, where it meets a region of
ionized air that causes the speed of
propagation to slow.

• The incident wave has an angle of θ1 to a perpendicular to the boundary line

between air and the ionized air. The bent (refracted) wave passes through the
ionized air; it now takes a different direction, however, which has an angle of θ2
with respect to the perpendicular.

8
 Radio Wave Propagation
• The relationship between the angles and the indices of refraction is given by
a formula known as Snell’s law:

where, n1 = index of refraction of initial medium

n2 = index of refraction of medium into which wave passes
θ1 = angle of incidence
θ2 = angle of refraction

• There will also be some reflection from the boundary between the two media
because the ionization causes the air to be a partial conductor.
However, this reflection is not total and major amount of the energy
passes into the ionized region.

9
 Radio Wave Propagation
Diffraction.
• The light and radio waves travel in a straight line. If an obstacle appears between
a transmitter and receiver, some of the signal is blocked, creating what is known
as a shadow zone [Fig(a)].

• A receiver located in the shadow zone cannot receive a complete signal. However,
some signal usually gets through due to the phenomenon of diffraction, the
bending of waves around an object.

10
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Diffraction.
• Diffraction is explained by what is known as
Huygens’ principle.
• Huygens’ principle is based on the assumption
that all electromagnetic waves, radiate as
spherical wave fronts from a source.
• Each point on a wave front at any given time
can be considered as a point source for
additional spherical waves.
• When the waves encounter an obstacle,
they pass around it, above it, and on either
side.

• As the wave front passes the object, the point sources of waves at the edge of the
obstacle create additional spherical waves that penetrate and fill in the shadow
zone. This phenomenon, sometimes called knife-edge diffraction, is illustrated in
Fig (b).
11
 Radio Wave Propagation
Radio Wave Propagation Through Space

• The three basic paths that a radio signal can take through space
are
the Ground wave,
the Sky wave, and
the Space wave.

12
 Radio Wave Propagation
Ground Waves.
• Ground or surface waves leave an antenna and remain close to the
earth (see Fig).
• Ground waves actually follow the curvature of the earth and can,
therefore, travel at distances beyond the horizon.
• Ground waves must have vertical polarization to be propagated from
an antenna. Horizontally polarized waves are absorbed or shorted by
the earth.

13
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Ground Waves (Contd)
• Ground wave propagation is strongest at the low- and medium-frequency ranges
i.e. 30 kHz to 3 MHz range, ground waves are the main signal path for radio signals.
The signals can propagate for hundreds and sometimes thousands of miles at these
low frequencies.

• The conductivity of the earth determines how well ground waves are
propagated.
The best propagation of ground waves occurs over salt water because the
water is an excellent conductor.
Conductivity is usually lowest in low- moisture areas such as deserts.

• At frequencies beyond 3 MHz, the earth begins to attenuate radio signals.

Objects on the earth and features of the terrain become the same order of
magnitude in size as the wavelength of the signal and thus absorb or adversely
affect the signal 14
 Radio Wave Propagation
Sky Waves.
• Sky wave signals are radiated by the antenna
into the upper atmosphere, where they are bent
back to earth. This bending of the signal is
caused by refraction in a region of the upper
atmosphere known as the ionosphere (see Fig).

• Ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes the

upper atmosphere to ionize, i.e., to become
electrically charged. The atoms take on or lose
electrons, becoming positive or negative ions.
Free electrons are also present.

• The ionosphere extends from 50 km above the

earth to as far as 400 km from the earth.
15
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Sky Waves (contd)
• The ionosphere is generally
considered to be divided into
three layers, the D layer, the E
layer, and the F layer; the F
layer is subdivided into the F1
and F2 layers.

• The D and E layers, the farthest

from the sun, are weakly
ionized. They exist only during
daylight hours, during which
they tend to absorb radio signals
in the medium-frequency range
from 300 kHz to 3 MHz. 16
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Sky Waves (contd)
• The F1 and F2 layers are closest to the
sun and are most highly ionized and have
the greatest effect on radio signals.

• The F layers exist during both day and

night.

• The primary effect of the F layer is to

cause refraction of radio signals when
they cross the boundaries between layers
of the ionosphere with different levels of
ionization.

17
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Sky Waves (contd)
• The direction of bending depends on the angle
at which the radio wave enters the ionosphere
and the different degrees of ionization of the
layers.

• Fig. shows the effects of refraction with different

angles of radio signals entering the ionosphere.
When the angle is large with respect to the earth,
the radio signals are bent slightly, pass on through
the ionosphere, and are lost in space.

• As the angle of radiation decreases from the

vertical, some signals continue to pass through the
ionosphere. But at some critical angle, which
varies with signal frequency, the waves begin
to be refracted back to the earth. 18
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Sky Waves (contd)
• The smaller the angle with respect to the
earth, the more likely it is that the waves
will be refracted and sent back to earth.

• In general, the higher the frequency,

the smaller the radiation angle
required for refraction to occur.

• At very high frequencies, essentially

those above 50 MHz, refraction seldom
occurs regardless of the angle. i.e. VHF,
UHF, and microwave signals usually
pass through the ionosphere without
bending
19
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Sky Waves (contd)
• Reflected radio waves are propagated over an extremely long
distance and sent back to earth with minimum signal loss. This
effect is most pronounced in the 3 MHz to 30 MHz or
shortwave range, which permits extremely long distance
communication.

• In some cases, the signal reflected back from the ionosphere

strikes the earth, is reflected back up to the ionosphere, and is re-
reflected back to earth. This phenomenon is known as multiple-
skip or multiple-hop transmission.

• For strong signals and ideal ionospheric conditions, as many

as 20 hops are possible. Multiple-hop transmission can extend the
communication range by many thousands of miles. The maximum
distance of a single hop is about 2000 mi, but with multiple hops,
transmissions all the way around the world are possible.
20
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Sky Waves (contd)

• The distance from the

transmitting antenna to the point
on earth where the first refracted
signal strikes the earth to be
reflected is referred to as the skip
distance (see Fig).

• If a receiver lies in that area

between the place where the
ground wave is fully attenuated
and the point of first reflection
from the earth, no signal will be
received. This area is called the skip
zone. 21
 Radio Wave Propagation
Space Waves.
• The third method of radio signal propagation is by direct waves, or space waves.

• A direct wave travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna
to the receiving antenna. Direct wave radio signaling is often referred to as line-
of-sight communication. Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do
they follow the curvature of the earth.

• Because of their straight-line nature, direct wave signals travel horizontally from
the transmitting antenna until they reach the horizon, at which point they are
blocked (Fig).

22
 Radio Wave Propagation
Space Waves(contd)
• Obviously, the practical transmitting distance with direct waves is a function of
the height of the transmitting and receiving antennas. The formula for
computing the distance between a transmitting antenna and the horizon is

To find the practical transmission distance D for straight-line wave transmissions,

the height of the receiving antenna must be included in the calculations:
23
 Radio Wave Propagation
• To find the practical transmission
distance D for straight-line wave
transmissions, the height of the
receiving antenna must be included in
the calculations:

• Where, D is the distance in miles for

Straight line wave transmission
• hr is the height of receiving antenna in
ft.
• Line-of-sight communication is characteristic of most radio signals with a
frequency above 30 MHz, particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave signals.
Transmission distances at those frequencies are extremely limited,
24
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Microwave space-wave propagation
• All the effects so far described hold true for microwave frequencies, but one
new phenomenon which occurs is super-refraction, also known as ducting.
• Air density decreases and Refractive index increases with increasing height
above ground.
• The change in refractive index is normally linear and gradual, but under certain
atmospheric conditions a layer of warm air may be trapped .above cooler air;
often over the surface of water. The result is that the refractive index will
decrease far more rapidly with height than is usual. This happens near the
ground, often within 30 m of it.

25
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Microwave space-wave propagation
• The rapid reduction in refractive index (and therefore dielectric constant) will
lead to complete bending of micro-waves (Fig). Microwaves are thus
continuously refracted in the duct and reflected by the ground, so that they are
propagated around the curvature of the earth for distances which sometimes
exceed 1000 km.
• The main requirement for the formation of atmospheric ducts is the so-called
temperature inversion. This is an increase of air temperature with height,
instead of the usual decrease in temperature of 6.5°C/km in the "standard
atmosphere." Super-refraction is, on the whole, more likely in subtropical than
in temperate zones.

26
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Tropospheric Scatter Propagation
• The troposcatter, or forward scatter
propagation, is a means of beyond-the-
horizon propagation for UHF signals. It uses
certain properties of the troposphere, the
nearest portion of the atmosphere ( within
about 15 km of the ground).
• Properties
• Two directional antennas are pointed so that
their beams intersect midway between them,
above the horizon. If one of these is a UHF
transmitting antenna, and the other a UHF
receiving one, sufficient radio energy will be
directed toward the receiving antenna to
make this a useful communication system.
27
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Tropospheric Scatter Propagation
• Properties
• This is a permanent state of affairs, not a
sporadic phenomenon. The best frequencies,
which are also the most often used, are
centered on 900, 2000 and 5000 MHz.
• It forms a very reliable method of over-the
horizon communication. It is not affected by
the abnormal phenomena that afflict HF sky-
wave propagation. Accordingly, this method
of propagation is often used to provide long-
distance telephone and other
communications links, over rough or
inaccessible terrain. Path links are
typically 300 to 500 km long.
28
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Tropospheric Scatter Propagation
• Tropospheric scatter propagation is subject
to two forms of fading. The first is fast,
occurring several times per minute at its
worst, with maximum signal strength
variations in excess of 20 dB. It is often
called Rayleigh fading and is caused by
multipath propagation. As Fig shows,
scattering is from a volume, not a point, so
that several paths for propagation exist
within the scatter volume.

• The second form of fading is very much

slower and is caused by variations in
atmospheric conditions along the path.
29
 Radio Wave Propagation
• For example, if a transmitting antenna is 350 ft high and the receiving antenna is 25
ft high, the longest practical transmission distance is

Repeater System
• To extend the communication distance at VHF, UHF, and microwave
frequencies, repeater is to be used(see Fig). A repeater is a combination of a
receiver and a transmitter operating on separate frequencies.
• The receiver picks up a signal from a
remote transmitter, amplifies it, and
retransmits it (on another frequency)
to a remote receiver. Usually the
repeater is located between the
transmitting and receiving stations,
and therefore it extends the
communication distance. 30
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Repeater System (contd)
To address overcrowding and distribute the communication properly, , trunked
repeater systems is used in which two or more repeaters are under the control
of a computer system that can transfer a user from an assigned but busy
repeater to another, available repeater. Thus the communication load is spread
around between several repeaters.
• Repeaters can also be used in series (Fig). Each repeater contains a receiver
and a transmitter. The original signal is picked up, amplified, and retransmitted on a
different frequency to a second repeater, which repeats the process. Typically, such
relay stations are located 20 to 60 mi apart, mostly at high elevations to ensure
reliable communication over very long distances.

31
Radio Wave Propagation

32
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Common Propagation Problems
• Fading.
• One of the primary effects of radio wave propagation is called fading.
Fading is the variation in signal amplitude at the receiver caused by
the characteristics of the signal path and changes in it.
• Fading causes the received signal to vary in amplitude, typically making
it smaller.
• Fading is caused by four factors:
Variation in distance between transmitter and receiver,
Changes in the environmental characteristics of the signal path,
The presence of multiple signal paths, and
Relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.

33
• Fading(Contd)
• Fading is also caused by objects coming between the transmitter and receiver
known as shadow fading, this occurs if a vehicle containing a transceiver
moves in such a way that a large building or a mountain comes between it and
a base station transceiver.
• Even the movement of a rainstorm or snowstorm between transmitter and
receiver can cause fading in it and a base station transceiver.

• Multipath Interference.
• One of the worst sources of fading is multipath interference. Sometimes called
Rayleigh fading, this type of fading occurs when a transmitted signal
takes multiple paths to the receiver because of reflections.
• The term Rayleigh refers to a particular type of statistical response curve
that mathematically describes the variation of the received signal.
34
•Multipath Interference (contd)
• Buildings, water towers, hills and mountains, and even moving vehicles all have reflected surfaces that will direct a
signal along a separate path to the receiving antenna. The signal may also be reflected from the ground or water.
The result is that multiple signals reach the receiver antenna at different times.
• Although fading can occur on signals of any frequency, it is most pronounced in UHF and microwave
communication, where the signal wavelengths are very short compared to the path distances and size of reflective
surfaces.

•Remedial Measures
• To overcome fading, most communication systems have a built-in fading margin. That is, they have
a high enough transmitter power and sufficient receiver sensitivity to ensure that the weaker reflective
signals do not degrade the direct signal as much. A fade margin of at least 5 dB is built into most
systems.

• Multipath fading can also be greatly minimized by using highly directive antennas, either at the
transmitter or at the receiver or at both. Narrow transmit and receive beams virtually eliminate
multiple paths and the related fading. 35
 Radio Wave Propagation
Remedial Measures (contd)
• Diversity System.
• Fading can also be minimized by using a diversity system.

• A diversity system uses multiple transmitters, receivers, or antennas to

mitigate the problems caused by multipath signals.

• Two common types of diversity are

Frequency Diversity
Spatial Diversity.

36
 Radio Wave Propagation
Remedial Measures (contd)
• Diversity System.
• Frequency Diversity -
Two separate sets of transmitters and receivers operating on different
frequencies transmit the same information simultaneously.
• Concept is that signals on different frequencies will react differently to
the various fading mechanisms, thereby resulting in a least one reliably
received signal.
• To be effective, the frequencies should be widely spaced from one
another.
• Very expensive since they require two transmitters, receivers, and
antennas, all on different frequencies.
• The scarcity of frequency spectrum also makes this type of system
impractical.
• It is rarely used except in cases where extreme reliability is a must.
37
 Radio Wave Propagation
Remedial Measures (contd)
• Diversity System.
• Space or Spatial Diversity
• Uses two receiver antennas spaced as far apart as possible to receive the signals.
• Concept is that antennas at slightly different locations will receive different variations of
the signals, with one being better than another. The spacing may be horizontal or vertical,
whichever is superior to the other.
• Diversity reception is particularly difficult at shortwave frequencies, where the spacing will
typically be many hundreds or even thousands of feet. Only horizontal spacing is used.
• At UHF and microwave frequencies, wide antenna spacing is relatively simple because the
wavelengths are short.
• In general, many systems use the relationship : h / d = 11; to determine a minimum and, as it
turns out, optimum spacing for antennas; Where, h is the height of the antenna and d is the
spacing distance.
• For antennas that are 100 ft high, the minimum spacing would be

38
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Space or Spatial Diversity (contd)
• Fig. shows a typical spatial diversity system.
• The two antennas feed a combiner network, where the two signals are linearly
added.
• The result is a larger signal and minimized fading effects. The signals may be
combined at the antenna or almost anywhere in the receiver.

39
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Space or Spatial Diversity
• Another form of spatial diversity is selective or switched diversity.
• In this system, shown in Fig, the two antennas feed separate LNAs whose
outputs are monitored by circuits that measure received signal strength. In
cell phone systems, these circuits are called received signal strength
indicators (RSSIs). They determine the signal with the greatest strength and
switch that signal to the remainder of the receiver circuits.

40
 Radio Wave Propagation
• Polarization –
• Electromagnetic waves are transverse, and the electric and magnetic fields are at
right angles. Since the magnetic field surrounds the wire and is perpendicular to it,
it follows that the electric field is parallel to the wire.
• Polarization refers to the physical orientation of the radiated waves in space.
Waves. are said to be polarized (actually linearly polarized) if they all have the
same alignment in space. It is a characteristic of most antennas that the radiation
they emit is linearly polarized. A vertical antenna will radiate waves whose electric
vectors will all be vertical and will remain so in free space.

• The wave of Fig is, of course, linearly polarized and is also said to be · vertically
polarized, since all the electric intensity vectors are vertical.

41
 Radio Wave Propagation

• The decision to label polarization direction after the electric intensity makes
the direction of polarization the same as the direction of the antenna.
• Thus, vertical antennas radiate vertically polarized waves, and similarly
horizontal antennas produce waves whose polarization is horizontal.
• It is also possible for antenna radiations to be circularly or even
elliptically polarized, so that the polarization of the wave rotates
continuously in corkscrew fashion.
.

42