ATMOSPHERE

STRUCTURE
Earth has five major spheres :

1. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Atmosphere
4. Cryosphere and
5. Biosphere

Climate system is an
interaction of these 5 spheres
(Geophysical System)
CLIMATOLOGY
• Climatology - the study of the behavior of the atmosphere and
changes in temperature, pressure, and other atmospheric factors
over a period of time.
• Climate derived from Greek word KLIMA – area or zone
• Climate – average state of atmosphere for a given time scale (long
period) and for a specified geographical region.
• Average state mainly denotes variation in – Temperature &
precipitation. Other factors – wind, pressure, clouds, humidity, etc.
• Climate is scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a
period of time
 Atmosphere
• From Greek Words:
• Atmos – Vapour (gases)
• Sphaira – Ball, Globe
• The gaseous cover by which our
planet earth is enveloped is
known as the atmosphere.
• It is like a deep blanket of gases
extending several thousands of
kilometres.
• It is inseparable from the earth
due to the gravitational force.
• 99% of the total mass of
atmosphere is confined to 32
Km from Earth’s surface
Layers Of Atmosphere

The atmosphere can be studied as a layered

entity (based on Temperature):

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere (Lower part Ionosphere)
5. Exosphere

• Each layer has its own peculiar

characteristics.
 1. Troposphere
• First and the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
• Troposphere starts at Earth’s surface and goes up to a
height of 7-20 Kms.
• In India it is around 16 Kms.
• “Tropo” means “change”. Since all weather changes occur
in this layer & air never remains static, it is called
Troposphere.
• This layer has water vapour and dust particles.
• All the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm
etc. are confined to this layer. All cyclones, storms and
precipitation occur here, as all water vapours and solid
particles lie within this.
 Troposphere
• In this layer, temperature decreases with
height.
• Temperature decreases at the rate of 10 C for
every 165 m of height. And averages around
6.50 C drop in every 1 Km. The fall in
temperature is called ‘lapse rate’.
• The reason is that the troposphere's gases
absorb very little of the incoming solar
radiation. Instead, the ground absorbs this
radiation and then heats the tropospheric air
by conduction and convection.
 Why Thickness of Troposphere varies???

• Maximum at Equator – 20 Km
• Minimum at Polar Regions – 7 Kms
Main Reasons:
• High insolation & strong convection currents
at Equator
• Air is less dense at Equator
• Gravitational pull on atmosphere is more at
Poles than on Equator (Earth is oblate
spheroid/ oblate ellipsoid)
• Centrifugal force maximum at Equator
 Tropopause

• It acts as a boundary between

troposphere and stratosphere.
• The height at which temperature stops
decreasing is called tropopause.
• This layer has constant temperatures.
• Here the temperature may be as low as
-58 degree Celsius.
 2. Stratosphere
• It is the second layer of atmosphere above troposphere.
• It extends beyond troposphere up to 50 km of height.
• This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour.
• This layer provides some advantages for flight because it
is above stormy weather and has steady, strong,
horizontal winds.
• Temperature increases due to the absorption of
ultraviolet radiation of Sun by ozone present in this
layer.
• This increase in temperature with height means warmer
air is located above cooler air.
• Stratopause separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.
 The Ozone Layer (ozonosphere)
• Stratosphere contains a layer of ozone
between 15 to 35 km from earth’s
surface. This layer is called
Ozonosphere.
• The ozone layer absorbs ultra-violet
rays from the sun and safeguards earth
from harmful radiation. It absorbs 97 –
99% of the UV radiation from the
Sun. Thus this layer has relatively
higher temperature.
• 90% of ozone molecules are in the
stratosphere (good ozone) and 10%
are in the troposphere (bad ozone)
 3. Mesosphere
• Found above the stratosphere.
• Starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth and
goes up to 85 km.
• The temperature drops with altitude in this
layer.
• By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius.
• It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
• Meteors burn up in this layer of dense air due
to creation of friction and a lot of heat
• The upper limit is called Mesopause which
separates Mesosphere and Thermosphere.
 4. Thermosphere
• This layer is found above Mesopause.
• Starts at 80 km above the surface of Earth and goes
up to 400 km.
• This layer is completely cloudless and free of water
vapor.
• “Thermo” means heat, and the temperature in this
layer can reach around 2000 degrees Celsius.
• The increase in temperature is due to absorption of
high energy X-rays and UV radiations of the Sun,
which causes the few particles present to heat up
considerably.
• It also results in Photoionization (the breakup of the
gas molecules into ions), and thus contains
Ionosphere.
 Thermosphere
• The International Space Station orbits in this layer. In this
layer many Low Earth Orbit satellites are present. The
Aurora also occurs here.

• In the ionosphere, the ions of the solar

wind collide with atoms of oxygen and nitrogen from the
Earth’s atmosphere. The energy released during these
collisions causes a colorful glowing halo around the
poles—an aurora. Most auroras happen in Thermosphere.

• The upper limit is called Thermopause which separates

Thermosphere and Exosphere.
 ionosphere
• An abundant layer of electrons and ionized atoms and
molecules that stretches from about 48 km above the
surface to the edge of space at about 965 km,
overlapping into the Mesosphere and Thermosphere.
• Ionosphere is a result of Photoionization (the breakup of
the gas molecules into ions).
• Ionosphere is important because it reflects and modifies
radio waves used for communication and navigation.
 5. Exosphere
• It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.
• It extends from the top of the
thermosphere up to 10,000 km. Though in
some places it is said that its upper limit is
quite uncertain.
• The exosphere contains many of the
satellites orbiting Earth.
• It gradually merges with interplanetary
space.
 Exosphere

• The temperatures in the layer

range from about 300 to 1650
degrees Celsius.
• Here the earth's gravity is
extremely weak.
• The outer part of it is called
Magnetosphere.
• The final boundary between the
Earth and the outer space is called
magnetopause.
CLIMATOLOGY

ATMOSPHERE
COMPOSITION
 Atmosphere
• The gaseous cover by which our
planet earth is enveloped is
known as the atmosphere.
• It is like a deep blanket of gases
extending several thousands of
kilometres.
• It is inseparable from the earth
due to the gravitational force.
Composition of Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is composed of water vapour,
mixture of different gases and dust particles.

Permanent Gases:
• These gases form a permanent composition of
the atmosphere and their residence time is also
longer (thousand to millions of years)
• Nitrogen and oxygen are the two main gases in
the atmosphere and 99% of the atmosphere is
made up of these two gases.
• Other gases like Argon, Carbon dioxide (now a
variable gas), Neon, Helium, Krypton, Xenon,
Hydrogen form the remaining part of
permanent gases in the atmosphere.
Composition of Atmosphere
Variable Components: (All are Greenhouse Gases too)

Component Symbol % by volume

Water Vapor H2O 0-4

Carbon Dioxide - it's on the increase in atmosphere CO2 0.038

Methane - it's also on the increase in atmosphere CH4 0.00017

Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003

Ozone O3 0.000004
Particles (dust, soot, etc) also called aerosols 0.000001
 Composition of Atmosphere
NITROGEN

• The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen.

• It cannot be used directly from the air, but in
compound forms.
• The required nitrogen for living things is supplied
by the Nitrogen Cycle.
 NITROGEN CYCLE
• Nitrogen is removed from the
atmosphere and deposited at the
Earth's surface mainly by:
• Specialized nitrogen fixing bacteria
• By way of lightning through
precipitation

• Nitrogen returns to the atmosphere

primarily through:
• Biomass combustion
• Denitrification.
 Composition of Atmosphere

OXYGEN

• The atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen.

• It is used by all living things and is essential for
respiration.
• It is essential for burning.
 Composition of Atmosphere
OXYGEN
• Oxygen is exchanged between
atmosphere and life through the
processes
of photosynthesis and respiration.

• Photosynthesis produces oxygen

while respiration requires oxygen
and produces water and carbon
dioxide.
• The waters of the world are the
main oxygen generators of the
biosphere; their algae are
estimated to replace about 90
percent of all oxygen used.
 Composition of Atmosphere
WATER VAPOUR

• Its quantity varies considerably from practically

none to up to about 4% by volume.
• Decreases from Equator to Poles:
• Highest concentrations near Equator & tropics - over
oceans and tropical rain forests.
• Less than 1% in Cold polar areas and subtropical
continental deserts
• Water vapours decrease with altitude
 Functions of Water Vapour:
• Water Vapour is the most significant component of the atmosphere
as far as its effect on weather is concerned.
• It is the source of all clouds and precipitation and regulates the
hydrological cycle
• The condensation of water vapor creates precipitation that falls to
the Earth's surface providing needed fresh water for plants and
animals.
• It has the ability to absorb heat energy and redistributes heat
energy on the Earth through latent heat energy exchange.
• It helps warm the Earth's atmosphere through the greenhouse
effect.
 Composition of Atmosphere
CARBON DIOXIDE

• Fifth most abundant gas in the atmosphere (0.036%)

• Addition in atmosphere through:
• Plant & Animal Respiration
• Volcanoes
• Organic Decay
• Combustion

• Absorbed from atmosphere through:

• Photosynthesis
• Oceans
 Composition of Atmosphere
CARBON DIOXIDE

• Carbon dioxide is an important

greenhouse gas (absorbs heat and keeps
the atmosphere warm) and has residence
time of 150 years.
• Its volume has increased by over 35% in
the last 300 years
• It is primarily due to anthropogenic
(human induced) factors like burning of
fossil fuels, deforestation, etc.
• This has contributed to global
warming over the last 100 years.
 Composition of Atmosphere
OZONE (Good Ozone)

• About 97% found in the Stratosphere and it absorbs

harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• In recent years, levels of stratospheric ozone have been
decreasing due to the build up of human
created chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere.
• Since late 1970s, scientists have noticed severe holes in
the ozone layer over Antarctica – Ozone Hole
• Satellite measurements have indicated that the zone
from 65° North to 65° South latitude has had a 3%
decrease in stratospheric ozone since 1978.
Without CFC With CFC
Ozone Hole
• The severe depletion of stratospheric ozone in
late winter and early spring in the Antarctic is
known as the “ozone hole”
• The very low winter temperatures in the
Antarctic stratosphere cause polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs) to form.
• Special reactions that occur on PSCs, combined
with the relative isolation of polar stratospheric
air, allow chlorine and bromine reactions to
produce the ozone hole in Antarctic springtime.
 Composition of Atmosphere
OZONE (Bad Ozone)

• Ozone is also concentrated at the Earth's

surface in and around cities.
• Most of this ozone is created as a by product
of human created photochemical smog. This
build up of ozone is toxic to organisms living
at the Earth's surface.

Photochemical smog - is a mixture of air pollutants which have been

chemically altered into further harmful compounds by exposure to sunlight.
 Composition of Atmosphere
METHANE
• A very strong greenhouse gas with residence
time around 10 years
• Over the last 200 years, methane
concentrations in the atmosphere have
increased by more than 150%.

Primary Sources:
• Rice cultivation; wetlands; coal mining; biomass
burning, oil and gas extraction; termites; animal
digestion
 Composition of Atmosphere
NITROUS OXIDE
• Though in average concentration, now
increasing at a rate of 0.2 to 0.3% per year
• It has an important role in the artificial
fertilization of ecosystems.
• However, enhancement of the greenhouse
effect is minor relative to the other greenhouse
gases

Primary Sources:
Land use conversion (mainly deforestation due to agriculture), Fossil fuel
combustion; biomass burning; and soil fertilization
 Composition of Atmosphere
AEROSOLS/SMALL PARTICULATE MATTER
• Aerosols – small solid particles (dust, smoke, volcanic
ash, etc)
• Mostly arise from natural sources & sink by dry or wet
deposition
• Typical residence time days to weeks

• Absorb larger amount of insolation; also greatly absorb the terrestrial radiation.
• Forms the hygroscopic nuclei or cloud condensation nuclei - results in cloud
formation
• Dust intercepts and reflects incoming insolation.
• Dust in the atmosphere contributes to the red and orange colour of sunrise and
sunset.
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