General Chemistry Course Overview

General Chemistry (1)
Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi

Associate Professor of Materials Chemistry
Schedule of Course Assessment Tasks for Students During the Semester
Proportion of
o Assessment Method Week Due Duration Marks
Final Assessment
1 Attendance All Weeks Very Beginning 5 5%
of Each Lecture
2 Quizzes All Weeks 10 min 5 5%
3 Mid-term Test 8th Week One hour 10 10 %
4 Practical (Attendance All Weeks Two hours 30 30 %
+ Reports + Tests)
5 Final Exam 15th Week Two hours 50 50 %
Total 100 100%
2 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry (1)

Required Text Books & Reference Materials
 General Chemistry Written Full ,  Gary Thorpe, Cliffs AP Chemistry,

McGraw-Hill (2002). Third Edition, www.cliffsnotes.com
(2001).
General Chemistry Written Full
 Other Learning Materials:

 Power Point Presentation (PPT) Slides for all the Lectures Delivered.
 All Lecture notes.
3
Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry
Quiz
What are the benefits of studying

“Chemistry” for the following medical
specialists?
(1) Physicians
(2) Pharmacists
(3) Nutritionists
4 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry
Chemistry is the science that describes matter—its properties, the changes it undergoes, and
the energy changes that accompany those processes.
Inorganic
Organic
Chemistr
Chemistr y
y
Chemistr Analytical
Chemistry
y
Physical
Chemistry
Biochemistry

Organic Chemistry: The branch of chemistry that is concerned with the study of compounds
having covalent bond between carbon and hydrogen (C ̶ H).
Inorganic Chemistry: The branch of chemistry that is concerned with the study of
compounds having no covalent C ̶ H bond.

Analytical Chemistry: The branch of chemistry that is concerned with the detection or
identification of substances present in a sample (qualitative analysis) or
with the amount of each that is present (quantitative analysis).
qualitative analysis Quantitative analysis
A precipitate of Titration of acid
solid Ni(OH)2 with base using
forms when indicator methyl
colorless NaOH orange. At
solution is added completion of
to green NiCl2 reaction, indicator
solution. colour changes
from yellow to
. orange
150-mL beaker (bottom left, green liquid)

Some laboratory  25-mL burette (top left, red)
equipment used to  1000-mL volumetric flask (center, yellow)
measure volumes of  100-mL graduated cylinder (right front,
liquids: blue)
 10- mL volumetric pipette (right rear,
green).
Physical Chemistry: The branch of chemistry that applies the mathematical theories and
methods of physics to the properties of matter and to the study of
chemical processes and the accompanying energy changes.
Gas
Co
nd
on
Ev
on
en
i
sit
ati
ap
sa
po
tio
or
m
De
at
n
bli
io
Su
n
Melting
Liquid
Solid Freezing
Physical changes that occur among the three states of matter. Sublimation is the conversion of a
solid directly to a gas without passing through the liquid state; the reverse of that process is
called deposition. The changes shown in blue are endothermic (absorb heat); those shown in red
are exothermic (release heat). Water is a substance that is familiar to us in all three physical
states. The molecules are close together in the solid and the liquid but far apart in the gas. The
molecules in the solid are relatively fixed in position, but those in the liquid and gas can flow
around each other.
Biochemistry: The branch of chemistry that is concerned with the study of biomolecules
(e.g., proteins, carbohydrates, polynucleotides, hormones, etc.), and chemical
processes in living organisms.
Capsaicin, the substance responsible for the

“hot” in peppers, has phenol, ester, and amide
functional groups. In addition to acting as an
inflammatory agent, it can act as a pain reliever,
presumably by blocking nerve endings involved
in the transmission of pain.
A short segment of the double strand of a DNA

molecule

Structure of
Atoms
He suggested that all matter is composed of tiny, discrete,
indivisible particles that he called atoms. His ideas, based entirely
on philosophical speculation rather than experimental evidence,
were rejected for 2000 years.
Democritus
(470–400 BC)
Greek philosopher
He his atomic theory called Dalton’s Atomic Theory. The Dalton’s

ideas may be stated as follows:
1. An element is composed of extremely small, indivisible
particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element have identical properties that
differ from those of other elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into atoms
of another element.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
John Dalton combine with one another in small whole-number ratios.
(1766–1844) 5. The relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant in a given
English schoolteacher compound.
Experiments evidencing the existence of electrons from experiments using cathode-
ray
(a) A cathode-ray (discharge) tube, showing the (b) A small object placed in a beam of
production of a beam of electrons (cathode cathode rays casts a shadow. This shows
rays). The beam is detected by observing the that cathode rays travel in straight lines.
glow of a fluorescent screen.
(d) Interaction of cathode

rays with a magnetic field is
(c) Cathode rays have also consistent with negative
negative electric charge, as charge. The magnetic field
demonstrated by their goes from one pole to the
deflection in an electric field. other.
(The electrically charged
plates produce an electric
(e) Cathode rays have mass, as shown by their ability to turn a small paddle wheel in their
field.)
11path.
The dominant view of that time was summarized in Thomson’s model of
J. J. Thomson the atom. This model suggested that the positive charge was assumed to
(1856–1940) be distributed evenly throughout the atom. The negative charges were
English pictured as being imbedded in the atom like plums in a pudding.
Physicist Therefore, this model is also called “plum pudding model”.
Positively charged
Imbedded negative
sphere
charges
In 1897, Thomson also determined the ratio of the charge (e) of the
electron to its mass (m). The modern value for this ratio is
e/m =1.75882 × 108 coulomb (C)/gram
In 1909, Millikan determined the charge and mass of the electron
through his famous experiment named “oil-drop experiment”. In
Millikan oil-drop experiment, tiny spherical oil droplets are produced by
an atomizer. The mass of the spherical drop can be calculated from its
volume (obtained from a measurement of the radius of the drop with a
microscope) and the known density of the oil. A few droplets fall
through the hole in the upper plate. irradiation with X-rays gives some
of these oil droplets a negative charge. When the voltage between the
plates is increased, a negatively charged drop falls more slowly because
Robert Millikan it is attracted by the positively charged upper plate and repelled by the
American Physicist negatively charged lower plate. At one particular voltage, the electrical
(1868–1953) force (up) and the gravitational force (down) on the drop are exactly
balanced, and the drop remains stationary. Knowing this voltage and the
mass of the drop, we can calculate the charge on the drop.
Charge of electron:
e =1. 60218 × 10-19 coulomb (C)
Mass of electron:
m = 9.10940 × 10-28 gram (g)
X-rays
13
Rutherford Scattering Experiment
Ernest Rutherford
(1871–1937)
English Physicist
In 1910, Rutherford’s research group carried out a series of experiments that had an
enormous impact on the scientific world. They bombarded a very thin piece of gold foil with
α-particles from a radioactive source. A fluorescent zinc sulfide screen was placed behind the
foil to indicate the scattering of the α-particles by the gold foil. flashes on the screen, caused
by the individual α-particles, were counted to determine the relative numbers of α-particles
deflected at various angles.
Nearly all of the α-particles passed through the foil with little or no deflection. A few,
however, were deflected through large angles, and a very few α-particles even returned from
the
14 gold foil in the direction from which they had come.
Rutherford Model of Atoms
Atoms consist of very small, very dense positively charged nuclei surrounded by
clouds of electrons at relatively great distances from the nuclei.

Atomic Spectra and Bohr Atom
(a) Atomic emission: The light emitted by a sample of excited hydrogen atoms (or any other
element) can be passed through a prism and separated into certain discrete wavelengths.
Thus, an emission spectrum, which is a photographic recording of the separated
wavelengths, is called a line spectrum.
(b) Atomic absorption: When white light is passed through unexcited hydrogen and then
through a slit and a prism, the transmitted light is lacking in intensity at the same
wavelengths as are emitted in part (a). The recorded absorption spectrum is also a line
spectrum and the photographic negative of the emission spectrum.

Niels Bohr began to develop the ideas that led to the publication of
his explanation of atomic spectra and his theory of atomic structure,
for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1922. He postulated the
following assumptions:
 The electron of a hydrogen atom revolves around its nucleus in
circular orbits.
Niels Bohr The electronic energy is quantized; that is, only certain values of
(1885–1962) electronic energy are possible.
Danish physicist The electrons can only be in certain discrete orbits, and that they
absorb or emit energy in discrete amounts as they move from one
orbit to another.
Each orbit corresponds to a definite energy level for the electron.
When an electron is promoted from a lower energy level to a
higher one, it absorbs a definite (or quantized) amount of energy.
When the electron falls back to the original energy level, it emits
exactly the same amount of energy it absorbed in moving from the
17 lower to the higher
Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi
energy level.
General Chemistry
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
The series of lines produced by the electron falling to the

n=1 level is known as the Lyman series; it is in the
ultraviolet region. A transition in which the electron falls
to the n=2 level gives rise to a similar set of lines in the
visible region of the spectrum, known as the Balmer
series.
Bohr- Balmer- Rydberg equation:
The energy levels that the electron can where h Planck’s constant, c the velocity of
occupy in a hydrogen atom and a few of light, λ the wavelength of spectral line in
the transitions that cause the emission Lyman series, and the n1 and n2 the Bohr
spectrum of hydrogen. number of lower and higher energy level,
respectively.
18
Quiz
How many orbitals can exist in the

following atomic subshells?
s, p, d, f
What would the maximum number of
electrons be accommodated in each
subshell?
Fundamental Particles
These are the basic building blocks of all atoms. Atoms, and hence all matter, consist
principally of three fundamental particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Protons:
Each element differs from the preceding element by having one more positive charge in
its nucleus known as proton.
Neutrons:
Atoms consist of very small, very dense nuclei surrounded by clouds of electrons at
relatively great distances from the nuclei. All nuclei contain protons; nuclei of all atoms
except the common form of hydrogen also contain neutrons.
Isotopes:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses; they are atoms containing
the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons
in its nucleus; that is
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number + neutron number
Mass number
Nuclide Symbol
Atomic number
Example
Numerical
(a) p e n (b) p e n
17
35
Cl 17 17 18 29
63
Cu 29 29 34
17
37
Cl 17 17 20 29
65
Cu 29 29 36
Numerical
Answer
Solution

Numerical
Answer
Solution
Suppose the abundance % of = x % and that of = (100- x) %

Quantum Numbers These quantum numbers play important roles in describing the
energy levels of electrons and the shapes of the orbitals that describe distributions of
electrons in space. There are four quantum numbers.
1. The principal quantum number (n) describes the main energy level, or shell, an
electron occupies. It may be any positive integer:
n= 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
2. The angular momentum quantum number (l) designates the shape of the region in
space that an electron occupies. Within a shell (defined by the value of n, the principal
quantum number) different sublevels or subshells are possible, each with a characteristic
shape. The angular momentum quantum number designates a sublevel, or specific shape of
atomic orbital that an electron may occupy. This number, l , may take integral values from 0
up to and including (n -1):
l =0, 1, 2, . . . , (n -1)
Thus, the maximum value of l is (n-1). We give a letter notation to each value of l. Each
letter corresponds to a different sublevel (subshell).
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , (n - 1)
s p d f
In the first shell, the maximum value of is zero, which tells us that there is only an s
subshell and no p subshell. In the second shell, the permissible values of are 0 and 1,
which tells us that there are only s and p subshells.
3. The magnetic quantum number (ml)designates the specific orbital within a subshell.
Orbitals within a given subshell differ in their orientations in space, but not in their energies.
Within each subshell, ml may take any integral values from – l through zero up to and
including + l :
ml =(-l), . . . , 0, . . . , (+l)
The maximum value of ml depends on the value of l. For example, when l =1 , which
designates the p subshell, there are three permissible values of ml : -1, 0, and 1. Thus, three
. distinct regions of space, called atomic orbitals, are associated with a p subshell. We refer to
s2 orbitals as the
these
.
pp6x, py, and pz orbitals . . d10
l=0, ml= 0 l=1, m = -1 0 +1 l=2, ml= -2 -1 0 +1 +2
l
f14
l=3, ml= -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
4. The spin quantum number (ms) refers to the spin of an electron and the orientation of the
magnetic field produced by this spin. For every set of n, l , and ml values, ms can take the
value +1/2 or -1/2: ms = ±1/2
The values of n, l , and ml describe a particular atomic orbital. Each atomic orbital can
accommodate no more than two electrons, one with ms = +1/2 and another with ms = -1/2.
ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2
Exercis Find out the permissible values of the four quantum numbers (n, l , ml and,
e
ms ) upto the 4th electronic energy levels of an atom. Also calculate the maximum
number of electrons can be accommodated in every shell and subshell.
Solution

Atomic
Atomic orbital is a region of spaceOrbitals
in which the probability of finding an electron is high.
There are 4 types of atomic orbitals; s, p, d, f . Their shape varies with the
probability of finding an electron and distribution of electron density around the atomic
nucleus. z
(1) s- y
orbitals
The s orbital is spherically symmetrical region of
space in which the probability of finding an electron
is very high (90%) at the surface of sphere and
decreases rapidly as distance from the nucleus x
increases. The radius of s orbitals increases with
increasing their principal quantum number, n.
Radius of 1s < 2s < 3s < 4s …..
1s 2s 3s 4s
Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

27 Chemistry
(2) p- orbitals
Each set of atomic p orbitals resembles three mutually perpendicular equal-arm
dumbbells. A set of three p atomic orbitals is represented by px, py and pz. The nucleus
defines the origin of a set of Cartesian coordinates with the usual x, y, and z axes. The
subscript x, y, and z indicates the axis along which each of the three two-lobed orbitals
is directed. The probability of finding an electron is high at the surface of extreme ends
of the lobes and decreases rapidly as distance from the center (nucleus) increases.
(a) The relative directional character of a set of p (b) A model of three p

orbitals. orbitals (px, py and pz) of a
Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General single set of orbitals. The
28 Chemistry nucleus is at the center.
(3) d- orbitals
Each set of atomic d orbitals comprises 5 configurations of electron density (5 orbitals)
resulting from the linear combination of two coordinates; 4 four-lobed orbitals(dxz, dyz,
dxy, dx2-y2) and one two-lobed orbital (dz2). The nucleus defines the origin of a set of
Cartesian coordinates with the usual x, y, and z axes. The subscript xz, yz, xy, x2-y2, z2
indicates the linear combination of axes along which each of orbitals is directed. The
probability of finding an electron is high at the surface of extreme ends of the lobes and
decreases rapidly as distance from the center (nucleus) increases.
y z z y
-x x -x x -y y
-x x
dx2-y2
dxy dyz
dxz
-y -z z -z -y
y
-x x
dz2
-y
-z
(4) f - orbitals
Each set of atomic f orbitals comprises 7 configurations of electron density as shown
below:

30 Chemistry
ELECTRON
Arrangement of electrons of an atomCONFIGURATI
into orbitals in the sequent way that gives the
lowest total energy for the atom. ON
Two General Rules Help Us To Predict Electron
Configurations:
1. Electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of increasing value of (n+l).
2. For subshells with the same value of (n+l), electrons are assigned first to the
subshell with lower n.
Example for Rule 1 :
2s subshell has (n+l =2+0=2) and the 2p has (n+l =2+1=3), so we would expect
to fill the 2s subshell before the 2p subshell.
Example for Rule 2:

2p subshell has (n+l =2+1=3) and the 3s has (n+l =3+0=3), so we would fill the
2p subshell before the 3s subshell., because the 2p has lower value of n.
31 Chemistry
The electronic structures of atoms are governed by the Pauli Exclusion Principle:
No two electrons in an atom may have identical sets of four quantum numbers
Example:
In helium where only 2 electrons exist(He=1s2). Although, the two electrons have the
same three quantum numbers (n=1, l=0, ml=0), they differ in the fourth quantum
number (ms). Due to the electron pairing, one electron would have ms =+1/2 while
another has ms =-1/2.
There is also very important rule called Hund’s Rule:
Electrons occupy all the orbitals of a given subshell singly before pairing
begins. These unpaired electrons have parallel spins
Example:
Oxygen has 8 electrons and whose electron configuration is O=1s2, 2s2, 2p4. According
to the Hund’s Rule, the oxygen has 2 unpaired electrons in 2p orbitals.
1s1s2 2s2
2s 2pz1z
2px2 2py1 2p

32 Chemistry
The usual order of filling of atomic orbitals
1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6/4s2,3d10,4p6/5s2,4d10,5p6/6s2,4f14, 5d10, 6p6/….

33 Chemistry
Example
Determine the electron configurations of (a) magnesium, 12Mg; (b) germanium, 32Ge;
and (c) molybdenum, 42Mo.
Solution
(a) 12Mg: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2

(b) 32Ge: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6/4s2,3d10,4p2
(c) 42Mo: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6/4s2,3d10,4p6/5s1,4d5 Half-filled orbital
stabilization
Example
Determine the number of unpaired electrons that exist in (a) germanium, 32Ge and (b)
molybdenum, 42Mo.
Solution 4px1 4py1 4pz0
(a) 32Ge: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6/4s2,3d10,4p2

There are 2 unpaired electrons in Germanium
(b) 42Mo: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6/4s2,3d10,4p6/5s1,4d5
There are 6 unpaired electrons in molybdenum 5s1 4 d1xz 4d1yz 4d1xy 4d1x2-y2 4d1z2
34 Chemistry
Example
Write an acceptable set of four quantum numbers for each electron in a nitrogen atom.
Solution
First we should find the electron configuration of N (Z=7)
N: 1s2/2s2, 2p3
Therefore, we can assign the values of four quantum numbers for each electron from 1
to 7 as follows:

35 Chemistry
Example
Write an acceptable set of four quantum numbers for each electron in a chlorine
atom.
Solution
First we should find the electron configuration of Cl (Z=17)
Cl: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p5

Therefore, we can assign the values of four quantum numbers for each electron from 1
to 17 as follows:

36 Chemistry
Quiz
What do you understand by the

following terms?
(1) Ionization energy
(2) Electron affinity
(3) Electronegativity
Development of Periodic Table of Elements
In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the known elements in order of
increasing atomic weight in successive sequences so that elements with similar chemical
properties fell in the same column. He noted that both physical and chemical properties of
the elements vary in a periodic fashion with atomic weight. His periodic table contained the
62 known elements. Because Mendeleev’s arrangement of the elements was based on
increasing atomic weights, several elements would have been out of place in his table.
Mendeleev Periodic Table of
Elements

It has been found that “the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers”. This is called periodic law. In the modern periodic table, the elements
were arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The elements periodically have similar
chemical and physical properties. The vertical columns are referred to as groups or families,
and the horizontal rows are called periods. Elements in a group have similar chemical and
physical properties, and those within a period have properties that change progressively
across the table. Several groups of elements have common names that are used so frequently
they should be learned. The Group IA elements, except H, are referred to as alkali metals,
and the Group IIA elements are called the alkaline earth metals. The Group VIIA elements
are called halogens, which means “salt formers”, and the Group VIIIA elements are called
noble (or rare) gases.
Lanthanides (4f)
39 Actinides (5f) Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry
The many trends in chemical and physical properties ,correlated with the periodic table are
ultimately based on the trends in electron configurations.

CHEMICAL
PERIODICITY
Periodic Table

41 Chemistry
PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS
1-ATOMIC Within a family (vertical group on
RADII the periodic table) of
representative elements, atomic
radii increase from top to bottom
as electrons are added to shells
farther from the nucleus. As we
move from left to right across a
period in the periodic table, atomic
radii of representative elements
decrease as a proton is added to the
nucleus and an electron is added to
Example a particular shell.
Arrange the following elements in order of increasing atomic radii. Justify your
order.
Cs, F, K, Cl
Solution
F < Cl < K < Cs

42 Chemistry
Atomic radius decreases
Atomic
Atomic radius
radius increases
increases
K < Cs F < Cl
F < Cl < K < Cs
2-IONIZATION ENERGY
(IE)first ionization energy (IE ), also called first ionization potential, is the minimum
The 1
amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom to form an ion with a 1+ charge.
For calcium, for example, the first ionization energy, IE 1, is 590
kJ/mol:
The second ionization energy (IE Ca(g)
) is+the kJ → Ca
590amount +
(g) + e-required to remove the second
of energy
2
electron.
For calcium, it may be represented as ,
Ca+(g) + 1145 kJ → Ca2+(g) + e-
For a given element, IE2 is always greater than IE1 because it is always more difficult to
remove an electron from a positively charged ion than from the corresponding neutral atom.
General trends in first

ionization energies of A group
elements with position in the
periodic table. Exceptions
occur at Groups IIIA
and VIA.

Example
Arrange the following elements in order of increasing first ionization energy. Justify
your order.
Na, Mg, Al, Si
Solution IE1 increases
IE
IE11 decreases
decreases
Na < Mg < Al < Si
3-ELECTRON AFFINITY
(EA)
The electron affinity (EA) of an element may be defined as the amount of energy
absorbed/released when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom to form an ion with
a 1-convention
The charge. is to assign a positive value when energy is absorbed and a negative value
when energy is released. Most elements have no affinity for an additional electron and thus
have an electron affinity (EA) equal to zero. We can represent the electron affinities of helium
and chlorine as
The first equation tells us that helium will not add an electron. The second equation tells us
that when one mole of gaseous chlorine atoms gain one electron each to form gaseous
chloride ions, 349 kJ of energy is released (exothermic).
Plot of electron affinity (EA)

versus atomic number for
several elements.

Electron affinity (EA) involves the addition of an electron to a neutral gaseous atom. The
process by which a neutral atom, X gains an electron:
Note that EA is not the reverse of the ionization process, in which a positively charged ion X+
gains an electron in the gaseous state:
(Less positive)
(More positive)

Example Arrange the following elements in order of increasing values of
electron affinity, that is, from most negative to least negative.
K, Br, Cs, Cl
Solution EA decreases
EA
EA increases
increases
K < Cs Cl < Br
Cl < Br < K < Cs
4-ELECTRONEGATIVITY
The(EN)
electronegativity (EN) of an element is a measure of the relative tendency of an atom to
attract electrons to itself when it is chemically combined with another atom. Elements with
high electronegativities (nonmetals) often gain electrons to form anions. Elements with low
electronegativities (metals) often lose electrons to form cations.
Covalent bond A—B For the representative elements,

electronegativities usually increase
Electron pair A : B from left to right across periods
and decrease from top to bottom
A :B within groups.
Lower electronegative atom Higher electronegative

(A=Metal) atom
Forming cation, A+ (B=Nonmetal)
Forming cation, B¯

Example Arrange the following elements in order of increasing
electronegativity B, Na, F,
O
Solution EN increases
EN
EN decreases
decreases
Na B<O<F
Na < B < O < F
5-IONIC RADII
Many elements on the left side of the periodic table react with other elements by losing
electrons to form positively charged ions (Cations). Each of the Group IA elements (Li, Na,
K, Rb, Cs) has only one electron in its outermost shell (electron configuration . . . ns1).
These elements react with other elements by losing one electron to forms monovalent cations
(Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+), 2attaining
1s /2s1 noble gas configurations. 1s2= [He]
Example (1)
Losing an electron +e-
The nuclear charge (no. of protons=3 in Li or Li+) remains constant when the ion is formed by
losing an electron. Therefore, the nuclear charge in Li + will attract the remaining two
electrons more strongly compared to that in neutral Li atom.
Example (2) 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s1 1s2/2s2, 2p6= [Ne]
Losing an electron +e-
Similarly, the nuclear charge in Na + (11 protons) will attract the remaining 10 electrons more
stronger than that in neutral Na atom.
For the same reason, we also see that the ions formed by the Group IIA elements (Be2+,
Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+) are significantly smaller than their neutral atoms (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr,
Ba, respectively).
Example (3) 1s2/2s2 1s2= [He]

+ 2e -
Losing 2 e-
Example (4) 1s /2s , 2p /3s

2 2 6 2 1s2/2s2, 2p6= [Ne]
Losing 2 e- + 2e -

Some other elements on the right side of the periodic table react with other elements by
gaining electrons to form negatively charged ions (Anions). The Group VIIA elements (F,
Cl, Br, I). These have the outermost electron configuration . . . ns2 np5.
Example (5)
1s2/2s2, 2p6= [Ne]
1s2/2s2, 2p5
+e- Gaining e-
1s /2s , 2p /3s , 3p
2 2 6 2 5 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6= [Ar]
+e- Gaining e-
These elements can completely fill their outermost p orbitals by gaining one electron to attain
noble gas configurations. Thus, when a fluorine atom (with seven electrons in its outer shell)
gains one electron, it becomes a fluoride ion, F¯, with eight electrons in its outer shell. These
eight electrons repel one another more strongly than the original seven, so the electron cloud
expands. The F ion is much larger than the neutral F atom. Similar reasoning indicates that a
chloride ion, Cl¯, should be larger than a neutral chlorine atom, Cl.
Isoelectronic species are ions of different elements having the same number of electrons.
The ions formed by the Group IIA elements (Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+) are significantly
smaller than the isoelectronic ions formed by the Group IA elements (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+)
in the same period. The radius of the Li+ ion is 0.90 Å, whereas the radius of the Be2+ ion is
only 0.59 Å.
Example (6)
Li Losing 1 e- Li+ Be2+ Losing 2 e-
1sBe
/2s
2 1 1s2 =[He] 1s2=[He] 1s2/2s2
Isoelectronic ions
Li+ Be2+
No. of Electrons = 2 No. of Electrons = 2
No. of Protons = 3 No. of Protons = 4
Nuclear Charge = 3 + Nuclear Charge =4+
The (4+) nuclear charge in Be2+ will attract the remaining 2 electrons more strongly
than that in Li+ having lower nuclear charge (3+).
Example(7): Which one would have higher ionic radius O2- or F -?Why?
F Gaining 1 e- F- O2- Gaining 2 e-
O
1s /2s , 2p
2 2 5
1s2/2s2, 2p6= [Ne] 1s2/2s2, 2p6= [Ne] 1s2/2s2, 2p4
F- Isoelectronic ions O2-

No. of Electrons = 10 No. of Electrons = 10
No. of Protons = 9 No. of Protons = 8
Nuclear Charge = 9+ Nuclear Charge =8+
The oxide ion is also larger than the isoelectronic fluoride ion because the oxide ion
contains 10 electrons held by a nuclear charge of only 8+, whereas the fluoride ion has 10
electrons held by a nuclear charge of 9+. These 10 electrons in O 2- ion repel one another
more strongly than that in F- ion, so the electron cloud of O2- ion expands larger than
that of F- ion. The ionic radius of O2-2- > F--
r =1.19 Å F- O2- r =1.26 Å

Guidelines for Investigation of Ionic Radius Trend
1. Simple positively charged ions (cations) are always smaller than the
neutral atoms from which they are formed (e.g., Na+< Na).
2. Simple negatively charged ions (anions) are always larger than the
neutral atoms from which they are formed (e.g., F- > F).
3. The sizes of cations decrease from left to right across a period.
4. The sizes of anions decrease from left to right across a period.
5.Within an isoelectronic series, radii decrease with increasing atomic
number because of increasing nuclear charge (e.g., Be2+< Li+ or F- < O2-).
6. Both cation and anion sizes increase going down within a group.
General trends in ionic radii of A group

elements with position in the periodic
table.

Example Arrange the following ions in order of increasing ionic radii: (a) Ca2+,
K+, Al3+; (b) Se2-, Br-, Te2-.
Solution (a) Ca2+, K+, Al3+
Ionic radius decreases
Ionic
Ionic radius
radius increases
increases
Ca2+< K+ Al3+
Al3+< Ca2+< K+
Solution (b) Se2-, Br-,
Te2-
Ionic radius decreases
Ionic
Ionic radius
radius increases
increases
Br- < Se2- Te2-
Br- < Se2- <Te2-
Quiz
Classify the bonding between the following pairs
of atoms as ionic or covalent.
(a)Li and O
(b)Br and I
(c) Na and Cl
(d)O and O
(e) H and O

CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bonding refers to the attractive forces that hold atoms together in compounds.
There are two major classes of bonding.
Types of Chemical Bonding

(1) Ionic bonding (2) Covalent bonding
Ionic bonding results from Covalent bonding results from

electrostatic interactions among sharing one or more electron pairs
ions, as a consequence of the net between two atoms.
transfer of one or more electrons
from one atom or group of atoms to Compounds that are held together mainly
another. by covalent bonds are called covalent
compounds.
Compounds containing
predominantly ionic bonding are Ty pe s of covalent bonds
called ionic compounds. Non-polar covalent bonds Polar covalent bonds
Covalent bonds exist between Covalent bonds exist between

atoms of same elements atoms of different elements
(homonuclear molecules. e.g. (heteronuclear molecules),
H2, Cl2. e.g., HCl, CO.
60
(1) Ionic Bonding Cations, A+ Anions, B-
Electrostatic attraction takes place so
rapidly between cations and anions in
the gaseous state.
+ -+
+ + - - - +-
+ + -
- - +
Atoms, A undergo
ionization (ejecting
Atoms,B undergo
electron affinity + - +
one e- or more to (gaining one e- or
more to form Rearrangement of cations and
form cations). anions in a regular lattice space
anions).
forming crystalline solid of AB
A (gas) B (gas) salt at room temperature.
e-
Ionic Bonding
in NaCl salt
11p 17p
12n 18 n
Cl(g) 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p5

Na(g) 1s /2s , 2p /3s
2 2 6 1
11p
+ 17p
18 n
12n
Salt crystal
NaCl (s)
Cl-(g) 1s /2s , 2p /3s , 3p

2 2 6 2 6
Na+(g) 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s0
62
(2) Covalent Bonding
Orbital overlapping region
Atom (A) Atom (B)
Overlapping between
atomic orbitals
+
Sharing one electron pair between
Valence shell two atoms forming the polar covalent
electrons bond in heteronuclear molecules
AB = HF, HCl, HBr, etc.
Atom (A) Atom
(A)
+
Non- polar covalent bond
Valence shell homonuclear molecules
electrons A2=H2, O2, Cl2, etc.
Covalent Bonding in H2 molecule
H
d
+
d
d d
64 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi H—H or H2

General Chemistry
Comparison b/w Ionic and Covalent Compounds

CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
Let us now clarify our classification of bonding types. The degree of electron sharing or transfer depends on the
electronegativity difference between the bonding atoms. Nonpolar covalent bonding (involving equal sharing of
electron pairs) is one extreme, occurring when the atoms are identical (Δ(EN) is zero). Ionic bonding (involving
complete transfer of electrons) represents the other extreme, and occurs when two elements with very different
electronegativities interact (Δ(EN) is large).
Δ(EN) increases
Δ(EN) =0 Δ(EN) =0.3 Δ(EN) =1.7 Δ(EN) =3.3
Non-polar Polar covalent bonding Ionic bonding

covalent
bonding (0.3 ≤ Δ(EN) < 1.7) (1.7 ≤ Δ(EN) ≤ 3.3)
(0 ≤ Δ(EN) < 0.3)

Example(1): What is the type of chemical bond formed between Ca and
O , given that the values of electronegativity for Ca and O are 1 and 3.5,
respectively ? Why ?
Solution
EN of O = 3.5
EN of Ca =1
Δ(EN) between Ca & O = 2.5
Therefore, the bond formed between Ca and O would be IONIC because the value of Δ(EN)
between Ca & O is greater than 1.7 (Δ(EN) ≥ 1.7)
Example(2): What is the type of chemical bond formed between H and O ,
given that the values of electronegativity for H and O are 2.1 and 3.5,
respectively ? Why ?
Solution
EN of O = 3.5
EN of H = 2.1
Δ(EN) between H & O = 1.4
Therefore, the bond formed between H and O would be POLAR COVALENT because the value of
Δ(EN) between H & O greater than 0 .3 and smaller than 1.7 (0.3 ≤ Δ(EN) ≤ 1.7)

Example(3): Classify the bonding between the following pairs of atoms as
ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent. (a) Li and O; (b) Br and Cl; (c)
Na and H; (d) O and O; (e) H and O.
Given that the values of electronegativity for H, Li, Na, Cl, Br and O are 2.1,
1.0, 1.0, 3.0, 2.8 and 3.5, respectively ? Why
Solution
(a) Li and O Δ(EN) between Li & O = 3.5 – 1.0= 2.5 (IONIC)
(b) Br and Cl Δ(EN) between Br & Cl = 3.0 – 2.8= 0.2 (NON-POLAR
COVALENT)
(c) Na and H Δ(EN) between Na & H = 2.1 – 1.0= 1.1 (POLAR COVALENT)
(d) O and O Δ(EN) between O & O = 3.5 – 3.5= 0 (NON-POLAR
COVALENT)
(e) H and Cl Δ(EN) between H & Cl = 2.1 – 2.8= 0.9 (POLAR COVALENT)
Example(4): Why is an HCl molecule polar but a Cl2 molecule is nonpolar?

Given that the values of electronegativity for H and Cl are 2.1 and 2.8
Solution
For Cl2 molecule, Δ(EN) between Cl & Cl = 2.8 – 2.8= 0 (NON- POLAR COVALENT), because (0 ≤ Δ(EN) <
0.3)
However, for HCl molecule, Δ(EN) between H & Cl = 2.1 – 2.8= 0.7 (POLAR COVALENT), because (0.3 ≤ Δ(EN)
< 1.7)
Exercise (5): Identify the bond in each of the following bonded pairs that is
likely to have the greater proportion of “ionic character.”
(a) Na-Cl or Mg-Cl (b) Ca-S or Mg-S (c) Al-Br or O-Br (d) Si-H or C-H
Solution (a) Na-Cl or Mg-Cl EN increases
EN
EN decreases
decreases
(i) First, arrange Na, Cl and Mg in order of increasing EN: Na < Mg < Cl
(ii) Second, arrange Na-Cl and Mg-Cl bond in order of increasing Δ(EN): Mg-Cl < Na-
Therefore, The ionic character of Na-Cl bond is greater than Mg-Cl bond Cl

Exercise (6): Identify the bond in each of the following bonded pairs that is
likely to have the greater proportion of “covalent character”.
(a) Na-Cl or Mg-Cl (b) Ca-S or Mg-S (c) Al-Br or O-Br (d) Si-H or C-H
Solution (a) Na-Cl or Mg-Cl EN increases
EN
EN decreases
decreases
(i) First, arrange Na, Cl and Mg in order of increasing EN: Na < Mg < Cl
(ii) Second, arrange Na-Cl and Mg-Cl bond in order of increasing Δ(EN): Mg-Cl < Na-
Cl
Therefore, The covalent character of Mg-Cl bond is greater than Na-Cl bond

Quiz
Why are the valence shell electrons

considered as chemically important
electrons?

LEWIS DOT FORMULAS OF ATOMS
The number and arrangements of electrons in the outermost shells of atoms determine the
chemical and physical properties of the elements as well as the kinds of chemical bonds they
form. We write lewis dot formulas (or lewis dot representations) as a convenient
bookkeeping method for keeping track of these “chemically important electrons.” We now
introduce this method for atoms of elements; in our discussion of chemical bonding in
subsequent sections, we will frequently use such formulas for atoms, molecules, and ions.
Lewis dots of an atom = No. of e--s in the outermost (valence) shell of that atom
Li= 1s2/2s1 N=
1s2/2s2, 2p3
No. of valence
shell e-s=1 No. of valence
shell e-s=5
73
Lewis Dots of Atoms
…….
….
.
..…
.….
….
...
...
..
..

Lewis Formulas for Compounds:
Lewis formula of a compound or an ion is simple representation of bonding atoms in
that compound/ ion using Lewis dot formulas of atoms involved.
For Ionic Compounds (Dot transferring representation)

-
..
.. . Cl
. Na+ +
..
Na Cl
.
..
..
+ .
..
For Covalent Compounds (Dot sharing representation)
H. . H
..
H.
.C . H C
..
.. H
..
+ .
H. H
H.

THE OCTET RULE: Many Lewis formulas are based on the idea that
In most of their compounds, the representative elements, except H achieve noble
gas configurations, that is each atom has a share in 8 e-s in their outer shells.
Representative elements usually attain stable noble gas electron configurations, when
they share electrons. In the NaCl eight electrons are in the outer shell of the Cl - ion, and
it has the aragon electron configuration; Also eight electrons are in the valence shell of
Na+ ion, and has the neon electron configuration.
-
For Ionic Compounds (Dot transferring representation)
..
.. . Cl Eight electrons are
. Na+ + in the outer shell
..
Na Cl
.
+ .. .. of the Cl- and Na+
.
1s22/2s22, 2p66/3s11
..
1s22/2s22, 2p66/3s22, 3p55
ion.
1s22/2s22, 2p66 =Ne 1s22/2s22, 2p66/3s22, 3p66 =Ar
For Covalent Compounds (Dot sharing representation)
. H
..
4 H. .C . H C
..
.. H
..
+ . Eight electrons are in
1s1 1s2/2s2, 2p2 the outer shell of the H 1s2 =He
C atom.
1s22/2s22, 2p66 = Ne Two electrons are in
the outer shell of each
76 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry H atom.
In CH4 molecule eight electrons are in the outer shell of the C atom, and it has the neon
electron configuration; two electrons are in the valence shell of each H atom, and each
has the helium electron configuration. Likewise, the C and O of CO 2 and the N of NH3
and the NH4+ ion each have a share in eight electrons in their outer shells. The H atoms
in NH3 and NH4+ each share two electrons.
Writing Lewis Formulas
The octet rule alone does not let us write Lewis formulas. We still must decide how to
place the electrons around the bonded atoms—that is, how many of the available
valence electrons are bonding electrons (shared) and how many are unshared electrons
(associated with only one atom). A pair of unshared electrons in the same orbital is
called a lone pair. A simple mathematical relationship is helpful here:
S=N-A
S is the total number of electrons shared in the molecule or polyatomic ion.
N is the total number of valence shell electrons needed by all the atoms in the molecule
or ion to achieve noble gas configurations.
N = (8 × number of atoms that are not H) + (2 × number of H atoms)
e.g., H22SO44 ; N = (8 × 5) + (2 × 2) = 40 + 4 = 44 electrons

A is the number of electrons available in the valence shells of all of the (representative)
atoms. This is equal to the sum of their periodic group numbers.
A= the sum of Lewis dots for all the representative elements present in a given
compound
e.g. For H2O ; A= 1(O)+2(H)= 1(6)+ 2(1)=8 electrons
We must adjust A, if necessary, for ionic charges. We add electrons to account for
negative charges and subtract electrons to account for positive charges.
One electron must be added for every negative
charge
e.g. , SO4 ; A={1(S)+ 4(O)}+2 ( for 2- charges )={1(6)+4(6)}+2=32 electrons
2-
One electron must be subtracted for every positive

charge
e.g. , NH4 ; A={ 1(N)+4(H)}-1( for 1+ charge )={1(5)+4(1)}-1= 8 electrons
+
Steps of Writing Lewis Formulas

1. Select a reasonable (symmetrical) “skeleton” for the molecule or polyatomic ion.
(a) The least electronegative element is usually the central element, except that H is
never the central element, because it forms only one bond. The least electronegative
element is usually the one that needs the most electrons to fill its octet.
Example: CS2 has the skeleton: S C S
(b) Oxygen atoms do not bond to each other except in (1) O2 and O3 molecules; (2)
hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, and its derivatives, the peroxides, which contain the O22-
group; and (3) the rare superoxides, which contain the O2- group.
Example: The sulfate ion, SO442-, has the skeleton:
(c) In ternary oxoacids, H usually bonds to an O atom, not to the central atom.
Example: nitrous acid, HNO2, has the skeleton: H O N O
There are a few exceptions to this guideline, such as H3PO3 and H3PO2.
(d) For ions or molecules that have more than one central atom, the most symmetrical
skeletons possible are used.
Examples: C2H4 and P2O74- have the following skeletons:

2. Calculate N, the number of valence (outer) shell electrons needed by all atoms in the
molecule or ion to achieve noble gas configurations using the relation:
Examples:
3. Calculate A, the number of electrons available in the valence (outer) shells of all the
atoms. For negatively charged ions, add to this total the number of electrons equal to
the charge on the anion; for positively charged ions, subtract the number of
electrons equal to the charge on the cation. Examples:
One electron added for every negative One electron subtracted for every positive
charge charge
Examples:

4. Calculate S, total number of electrons shared in the molecule or ion, using the
relationship
S=N-A
Examples:
5. Place the S electrons into the skeleton as shared pairs. Use double and triple bonds
only when necessary. Lewis formulas may be shown as either dot formulas or dash
formulas.
Examples:
81
6. Place the additional electrons into the skeleton as unshared (lone) pairs to fill the
octet of every representative element (except H, which can share only 2 e-). Check
that the total number of electrons is equal to A
Examples:
Check: 16 pairs of e- have been used (2 × 16 = 32 e- =A) and all octets are satisfied.
Check: 16 pairs of e- have been used (2 × 16 = 32 e- =A) and all octets are satisfied.

Quiz
Draw the possible structural

isomers for the chemical
formula, C2H6O.

Example(1): Write the Lewis formula for the carbonate ion, CO32-
Solution 2-
O
(i) Selecting the most appropriate skeleton
O C O
(ii) Calculating N, A, and then S
N = (8 × number of atoms that are not H)
N = (8 × 3O) + (8 × 1 C) = (8 × 3) + (8 × 1) = 32 e-
A= the sum of Lewis dots for all the representative elements present a given
compound
Two electron added for every negative charge
A = { (4 × 1C) + (6 × 3 O)} + 2 (for 2- charges ) = {(4 × 1) + (6 × 3)} +2 = 24 e-
S=N–A
S = 32 – 24 =8 e- (4 pairs of e-s shared )
(iii) Placing 4 shared pairs of e-s between atoms
2-
O
..
O C O
..
..
..
(iv) Place the additional electrons into the skeleton as unshared (lone) pairs to fill the
octet of every element.
Remaining e-s=A – 8 = 24 – 8= 16 e-s (or 8 pairs of e-s)
.. 2- .. 2-
O
..
..
O
..
..
.. .. ..
.. .. .. or
. .. C .O C O
..
.O O . ..
..
..
..
Check: 24 e-s have been used (2×12 pairs of e-s =24 e-s= A) and all octets are satisfied.

EXERCISES
1. Write Lewis formulas for the following: H2; N2; Cl2; HCl; HBr.
2. Write Lewis formulas for the following: H2O; SO3; NH3.
3. Use Lewis formulas to represent the covalent molecules formed by these pairs of
elements. Write only structures that satisfy the octet rule. (a) P and H; (b) Se and Br;
(c) N and Cl; (d) Si and Cl.
4. Use Lewis formulas to represent the covalent molecules formed by these pairs of
elements. Write only structures that satisfy the octet rule. (a) S and Cl; (b) As and F;
(c) I and Cl; (d) P and Cl.
5. Find the total number of valence electrons in each of the following molecules or ions.
(a) NH2- (b) ClO3- (c) HCN (d) SnCl4
6. How many valence electrons does each of these molecules or ions have?
(a) H2S (b) PCl3 (c) NOCl (d) OH-
7. Write Lewis structures for the molecules or ions in Exercise 5.
8. Write Lewis structures for the molecules or ions in Exercise 6.
9. Write Lewis structures for the following molecules or ions: (a) ClO 4- ; (b) C2H6O
(two possibilities); (c) HOCl; (d) SO32-.

10. Write Lewis structures for the following molecules or ions: (a) H 2CO; (b) ClF; (c)
BF4-; (d) PO43-.
11. Write Lewis formulas for CCl4, SiF4, and PbI4; explain the similarity.
12. Write Lewis structures for the following molecules:
(a) Formic acid, HCOOH, in which the atomic arrangement is
H C O H
(b) Acetonitrile, CH3CN;

(c) Vinyl chloride, CH2CHCl, the molecule from which PVC plastics are made.
13. Write Lewis structures for the following molecules:
(a) Tetrafluoroethylene, C2F4, the molecule from which Teflon is made;
(b) Acrylonitrile, CH2CHCN, the molecule from which Orlon is made.
14. Which of the following species contain at least one atom that violates the octet
rule?

15. Suppose that “El” is the general symbol for a representative element. In each case, in
which periodic group is El located? Justify your answers and cite a specific example
for each one.
16. Suppose that “El” is the general symbol for a representative element. In each case, in
which periodic group is El located? Justify your answers and cite a specific example for
each one.

EXERCISE. 1. Write Lewis formulas for the following: H2; N2; Cl2; HCl; HBr.
Solution : Cl2
(i) Selecting the most appropriate skeleton: Cl Cl

N = (8 × 2Cl) = (8 × 2) = 16 e-
compound
A = (7 × 2Cl) = 14 e--
S=N-A
S = A –14=16 – 14 =2 e- (1 pair of e-s shared )

(iii) Placing 1 shared pair of e- between 2 Cl atoms
Cl Cl
..
octet of every Cl atom.
Remaining e-s=A –2=14 – 2= 12 e-s (or 6 pairs of e-s)
.. .. .. ..
Cl Cl
..
..
Cl Or Cl
..
..
..
.. .. .. ..

EXERCISE.2. Write Lewis formulas for the following: H2O; SO3; NH3.
Solution : SO3
O
(i) Selecting the most appropriate skeleton:
O S O
N = (8 × 3O)+(8 × 1S) = (8 × 3) +(8 × 1) =24+8= 32 e--
compound
A = (6 × 3O)+(6 × 1S) = (6 × 3) +(6 × 1) =24 e--
S=N-A
S = 32 – 24 =8 e- (4 pair of e-s shared )

O
..
O S O
..
..
..
Remaining e-s=A – 8 = 24 – 8= 16 e-s (or 8 pairs of e-s)
.. ..
O
..
..
O
..
..
.. .. ..
.. .. .. or
. .. S .O S O
..
.O O . ..
..
..
..

EXERCISE.3. Use Lewis formulas to represent the covalent molecules formed by these
pairs of elements. Write only structures that satisfy the octet rule. (a) P and H; (b) Se
and Br; (c) N and Cl; (d) Si and Cl.
Solution : (a) P and H

P is the central atom because (1) P is the least electronegative element and (2) H is never
the central element
Lone pair of e-s
H. . H
H. .P : ..
H P..
..
..
+ .
H. H
H
H P
..
or

H
EXERCISE.4. Use Lewis formulas to represent the covalent molecules formed by these
pairs of elements. Write only structures that satisfy the octet rule. (a) S and Cl; (b) As
and F; (c) I and Cl; (d) P and Cl.
Solution : (a) S and Cl

S is the central atom because it is the least electronegative element.
2 lone pairs of e-s
: : : :
: Cl .
+ : ..
: .. :
: :
. ..S . :Cl Cl :
..S
..
: Cl .
..
: :
Cl :
: :
or :Cl S
..
EXERCISE.5. Find the total number of valence electrons in each of the following
molecules or ions.
Solution : (a) NH2-
The total number of valence electrons in NH2- ion = A ={1(N)+2(H)} + 1(for 1- charge)
={1(5)+2(1)} + 1= 8 e- available
EXERCISE.6. How many valence electrons does each of these molecules or ions have?
Solution : (a) H2S

The total number of valence electrons in H2S molecule = A ={1(S)+2(H)}
={1(6)+2(1)} = 8 e- available

EXERCISE.7. Write Lewis structures for the molecules or ions in Exercise 5.
Solution : (a) NH2-

(i) Selecting the most appropriate skeleton: [H N H]-

N = (8 × 1N)+(2 × 2H) = (8)+ (4) = 12 e--
A = The total number of valence electrons in NH2- ion = {1(N)+2(H)} + 1(for 1- charge)
A = {1(5) + 2(1)} + 1 = 8 e-
S=N–A
S = 12 – 8 =4 e-- (2 pairs of e--s shared )

(iii) Placing 2 shared pairs of e- between atoms
-
H N H
..
..
Remaining e-s= A –4 = 8 – 4= 4 e-s (or 2 pairs of e-s)
- -
.. ..
H N H or H N H
..
..
..
..
Check: 8 e-s have been used (2×4 pairs of e-s =8 e- = A) and all octets are satisfied.

EXERCISE.8. Write Lewis structures for the molecules or ions in Exercise 6.
Solution : (a) H2S

(i) Selecting the most appropriate skeleton: H S H

N = (8 × 1S)+(2 × 2H) = (8)+ (4) = 12 e--
A = The total number of valence electrons in H2S = {1(S)+2(H)}
A = {1(6) + 2(1)} = 8 e-
S=N–A
S = 12 – 8 =4 e-- (2 pairs of e--s shared )

H S H
..
..
Remaining e-s = A –4 =8 – 4= 4 e-s (or 2 pairs of e-s)
.. ..
H S H or H S H
..
..
.. ..
Check: 8 e-s have been used (2×4 pairs of e-s =8 e- = A) and all octets are satisfied.

EXERCISE.9. Write Lewis structures for the following molecules or ions: (a) ClO 4- ;
(b) C2H6O (two possibilities); (c) HOCl; (d) SO32-.
Solution : (b) C2H6O (two possibilities) H H
H C C O H
(i) Selecting the most appropriate skeleton:
H H
N = (8 × 1O) + (8 × 2C) + (2 × 6H) = (8)+ (16) + (12) = 36 e-
A = The total number of valence electrons in C2H6O = {1(O)+ 2 (C)+6(H)}
A = {1(6) + 2(4) + 6 (1)} = { 6 + 8 + 6 }= 20 e--
S=N–A
S = 36 – 20 = 16 e- (8 pairs of e-s shared )

H H
.. ..
H C C O H
..
..
..
..
.. ..
H H
Remaining e-s= A –16 =20 – 16 = 4 e-s (or 2 pairs of e-s)
H H H H
H
.. ..
C C O H
..
or ..
H C C O H
..
..
..
..
.. .. .. ..
H H
H H
H H
Or another possibility is ether
..
H C O .. C H
H H
Check: 20 e s have been used (2×10 pairs of e s =20 e = A) and all octets are satisfied.
- - -

Quiz
Write Lewis formula of CO2 and SO2 .

Do they have the same molecular
shape? Explain why.

Molecular Structures and Covalent Bonding Theories
There are two important theories of covalent bonding, which usually allow us to
predict correct structures and properties.
(1)Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory

This theory helps us to understand and predict the spatial arrangement of atoms
in a polyatomic molecule or ion. It does not, however, explain how bonding occurs,
just where it occurs and where unshared pairs of valence shell electrons are
directed.
(2) Valence bond (VB) theory
The VB theory describes how the bonding takes place, in terms of overlapping
atomic orbitals. In this theory, the atomic orbitals are often “mixed” or
hybridized, to form new orbitals with different spatial orientations.
Used together, these two theories enable us to understand the bonding, molecular
shapes, and properties of a wide variety of polyatomic molecules and ions.

(1)Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
The basic ideas of the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory are:
The sets of valence shell electrons on the central atom

repel one another. They are arranged about the
central atom so that repulsions among them are as
small as possible.
A central atom is any atom that is bonded to more than one other atom. In some
molecules, more than one central atom may be present. In such cases, we
determine the arrangement around each in turn, to build up a picture of the
overall shape of the entire molecule or ion. We first count the number of regions
of high electron density around the central atom, as follows:
1. Each bonded atom is counted as one region of high electron density,

Rules whether the bonding is single, double, or triple.
2. Each unshared pair of valence electrons on the central atom is
counted as one region of high electron density.

Molecules with general formula, AB4 (for example, CH4)
Tetrahedral
H.. H
H C .. H or H C H
..
..
H H
Molecules with general formula, AB3U (for example, :NH3),

where U= lone pair of e- on atom A
..
..
H N H or H N H
..
..
..
H H
Examples * Note that U= lone pair of e-s located on central atom
General formula: AB2 AB3U AB4 AB4
Electronic geometry: Linear Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
Molecular geometry: Linear Trigonal Tetrahedral Tetrahedral

pyramidal
106
(2) Valence bond (VB) theory
We use the VB theory to describe the atomic orbitals that overlap to produce the
bonding with that geometry.
The “pure atomic” orbitals do not have the correct energies or orientations to describe
where the electrons are when an atom is bonded to other atoms. When other atoms are
nearby as in a molecule or ion, an atom can combine its valence shell orbitals to form
a new set of orbitals that is at a lower total energy in the presence of the other atoms
than the pure atomic orbitals would be. This process is called hybridization, and the
new orbitals that are formed are called hybrid orbitals. These hybrid orbitals can
overlap with orbitals on other atoms, sharing electrons and forming bonds.
(1) The number of hybrid orbitals is always equal to the number

of atomic orbitals that hybridize.
(2) The resulting hybrid orbitals have equal electronic energies.
(3) The lone pair of electrons on the central atom (U) occupies one
Rules of the hybrid orbitals.
(4) Sigma (σ) bond is produced by the head-on overlapping of
one hybrid orbital of the central atom with an atomic/hybrid
orbital of another atom, while pi (π) bond is formed as a result
of the side-on overlapping of two “pure atomic” orbitals.
sp - hybridization
Hybridization of one s orbital and one p orbital gives two sp hybrid orbitals. The sp
hybridization occurs at the central atom whenever there are two regions of high
electron density around the central atom. AB2 molecules and ions with no lone pairs
on the central atom have linear electronic geometry, linear molecular geometry, and
sp hybridization on the central atom ( i.e., the angle between the two sp hybrid
orbitals is equal to 180 o).
+
180o
s orbital px orbital
Two sp hybrid orbitals
Examples
AB2 : BeCl2, BeI2, BeBr2,
HgCl2, HgBr2, … HC ≡ CH
CdI2, CdCl2, …

sp2 - hybridization
Hybridization of one s orbital and two p orbital gives three sp2 hybrid orbitals. The sp2
hybridization occurs at the central atom whenever there are three regions of high
on the central atom have trigonal planar electronic geometry, trigonal planar
molecular geometry, and sp2 hybridization on the central atom ( i.e., the angle
between each two sp2 hybrid orbitals is equal to 120 o).
120o
+
s orbital px py
Examples Three sp2 hybrid orbitals
AB3 : BF3, BCl3, BI3, BBr3,…
CH2 = CH2
sp3 - hybridization
Hybridization of one s orbital and three p orbital gives four sp3 hybrid orbitals. The sp3
hybridization occurs at the central atom whenever there are four regions of high
on the central atom have tetrahedral electronic geometry, tetrahedral molecular
geometry, and sp3 hybridization on the central atom ( i.e., the angle between each two
sp3 hybrid orbitals is equal to 109.5 o).
+ 109.5o
s orbital px py pz
Examples
Four sp3 hybrid orbitals
AB4 : CH4, CF4, CCl4, SO42-, NH4+,…
CH3 – CH3
sp3d- hybridization
sp3d hybridization occurs at the central atom whenever there are five regions of high
electron density around the central atom. AB5 molecules and ions with no unshared
pairs on the central atom have trigonal bipyramidal electronic geometry, trigonal
bipyramidal molecular geometry, and sp3d hybridization on the central atom.
There are two types of bond orientations; axial and equatorial bonds ( i.e., the angles
between axial and equatorial bonds or sp3d hybrid orbitals are 180o and 120o,
respectively).
+ + Axial angle
180 o Equatorial angle
s px py pz dxy
120 o
Five sp3d hybrid orbitals
Trigonal bipyramidal geometry Examples

AB5 : PCl5, PF5 ,…
sp3d2- hybridization
sp3d2 hybridization occurs at the central atom whenever there are six regions of high electron
density around the central atom. AB 6 molecules and ions with no unshared pairs on the central
atom have octahedral electronic geometry, octahedral molecular geometry, and sp3d2
hybridization on the central atom.
There are two types of bond angles between sp3d2 hybrid orbitals ; 180o and 90o).
180 o
+ +
90 o
s px py pz dxy dxz
Six sp3d2 hybrid orbitals
Octahedral geometry Examples

AB6 : SCl6, SF6 ,…
Molecular Geometry of Species without Lone Pairs (U) on the Central Atom
AB2
AB3
AB4
AB5
AB6

Molecular Geometry of Species with Lone Pairs (U) on the Central Atom

EXAMPLE.1. Describe the bonding in BeCl2, with three-dimensional VSEPR and VB
structures. Show the orbital overlap, and label the orbitals.
Solution :
1- Applying VSEPR theory
x + (2×-1) =0
Be Cl2 x - 2 =0 or x= +2
Since, the charge on Be ( +2) is equal to the No. of valence shell e -s (Lewis dots) of Be
atom, BeCl2 has no additional lone pairs (U) on its central atom (Be). Thus, BeCl 2 follows
the general formula, AB2 which is adopted in linear molecular geometry (180o).
180 o
(BeCl2≡ AB2): linear Cl Be Cl

2- Applying VB theory
Be 1s22/2s22, 2p00 Cl 1s22/2s22, 2p66/3s22, 3p55
[He]/2s22, 2p00 [Ne]/3s22, 3p55

Promotion/ excitation of one electron from 2s to 2p orbital in Be
Since BeCl2 follows the general formula, AB2 , Be atom will undergo sp hybridization .
180 o
Two sp hybrid orbitals
Overlapping 3p orbitals of Cl atoms with sp hybrid orbital of Be atom .

EXAMPLE.2. Describe the bonding in BF3, with three-dimensional VSEPR and VB
Solution :
x + (3×-1) =0
B F3 x - 3 =0 or x= +3
Since, the charge on B ( +3) is equal to the No. of valence shell e -s (Lewis dots) of B atom, BF3 has no
additional lone pairs (U) on its central atom (B). Thus, BF 3 follows the general formula, AB3 which is
adopted in trigonal planar molecular geometry (120o).
F
120 o
(BF3 ≡ AB3): Trigonal planar B
F F

2- Applying VB theory B [He]/2s22, 2p11
F [Ne]/2s22, 2p55
Promotion/ excitation of one electron from 2s to 2p orbital in B followed by sp2 hybridization.
Overlapping 2p orbitals of F atoms

with sp2 hybrid orbital of B atom.

EXAMPLE.3. Describe the bonding in CH4, with three-dimensional VSEPR and VB
Solution :
x + (4×-1) =0
C H4 x - 4 =0 or x= +4
Since, the charge on C ( +4) is equal to the No. of valence shell e -s (Lewis dots) of C atom, CH4 has no
additional lone pairs (U) on its central atom (C). Thus, CH 4 follows the general formula, AB4 which is
adopted in tetrahedral molecular geometry (109.5o).
(CH4≡ AB4): Tetrahedral
109.5 o

C [He]/2s22, 2p22
H 1s11
Promotion/ excitation of one electron from 2s to 2p orbital in C followed by sp3 hybridization.
Overlapping 1s orbitals of H atoms

with sp3 hybrid orbital of C atom.

EXAMPLE.4. Describe the bonding in NH3, with three-dimensional VSEPR and VB
Solution :
x + (3×-1) =0
N H3 x- 3 =0 or x= +3
Since, the charge on N ( + 3) is lesser than the No. of valence shell e -s (Lewis dots) of N atom, NH3 has
one additional lone pair (U) on its central atom (N). Thus, NH3 follows the general formula, AB3U
which is adopted in trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry.
Lone pair (U)
(:NH3 ≡ AB3U): .. or
Trigonal N
pyramidal H H 107.3 o
107.3 o
H
N [He]/2s22, 2p33
H 1s11
sp3 hybridization.
N N
N N N
Overlapping 1s orbitals of H atoms

with sp3 hybrid orbital of N atom.

EXAMPLE.5. Describe the bonding in ethylene, C2H4 using the VB theory. Show the
orbital overlap, and label the orbitals.
Solution : Ethylene CH2 =CH2 C [He]/2s22, 2p22
H 1s11
Promotion/excitation of one
electron from 2s to 2p orbital in
C followed by sp2hybridization
required to form 3 sigma bonds
for each C atom.
Two sp2-hybridized carbon atoms form a
sigma (σ) bond by head-on overlap of two
sp2 orbitals and a pi (π) bond by side-on
overlap of p orbitals.

The 1s orbitals (with one e - each) of four hydrogen atoms overlap the remaining four
sp2 orbitals (with one e each) on the carbon atoms to form four C-H sigma bonds
Planar Ethylene C2H4

molecule
Four C-H σ bonds
One C-C σ bond
One C-C π bond

EXAMPLE.6. Describe the bonding in acetylene, HC ≡ CH using the VB theory. Show
the orbital overlap, and label the orbitals.
Solution : Acetylene, HC ≡ CH C [He]/2s22, 2p22
H 1s11
Promotion/ excitation of one

electron from 2s to 2p orbital in C
followed by sp hybridization required
to form 2 sigma bonds for each C
atom.
Two sp -hybridized carbon atoms form a sigma (σ) bond by head-on overlap of two sp
orbitals and 2 pi (π) bonds by side-on overlap of p orbitals.
Linear Acetylene C2H2 molecule

Two C-H σ bonds
One C-C σ bond
Two C-C π bond
EXERCISES
1. Write a Lewis formula for each of the following species. Indicate the number of regions of high
electron density, the kind of hybridization on central atom, and molecular or ionic geometries.
(a) BeBr2 (b) SnCl4 (c) BrF3 (d) SbF6- (e) BF3 (f) SO2 (g) IO3- (h) SiCl4 (i) SeF6
2. Pick the member of each pair that you would expect to have the smaller bond angles, if
different, and explain why.
(b) SF2 and SO2 (b) BF3 and BCl3 (c) SiF4 and SF4 (d) NF3 and OF2
3. What is the hybridization of the central atom in each of the following?
(a) IF4- (b) SiO44- (c) AlH4- (d) NH4+ (e) PCl3 (f ) ClO3- (g) NCl3 (h) AlCl3 (i) CF4 (j) SF6 (k) IO4-
4. Prepare a sketch of the molecule CH3CH=CH2 showing orbital overlaps. Identify the type of
hybridization of atomic orbitals on each carbon atom.
5. Predict the hybridization at the numbered atoms ( ➀, ➁, and so on) in the following molecules
and predict the approximate bond angles at those atoms.

6. How many sigma and how many pi bonds are there in each of the following molecules?

7. The following is an incomplete Lewis formula for a molecule. This formula has all the atoms
at the correct places, but it is missing several valence electrons. Complete this Lewis formula,
including lone pairs.
8. The following is an incomplete Lewis formula for a molecule. This formula has all the atoms
at the correct places, but it is missing several valence electrons. Complete this Lewis formula,
including lone pairs.

Summary of VSEPR & VB theory
General Hybridization Electronic geometry Molecular geometry example
formula
AB2 sp Linear Linear BeCl2
AB3 sp2 Trigonal planar Trigonal planar BF3
AB2U sp2 Trigonal planar Angular SO2
AB4 sp3 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral CH4
AB3U sp3 Tetrahedral Trigonal NH3

pyramid
AB2U2 sp3 Tetrahedral Angular H2O

General Hybridization Electronic geometry Molecular geometr example
formula
AB5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramid Trigonal bipyramid PCl5
AB4U sp3d Trigonal bipyramid Seesaw SF4

(Distorted tetrahedral)
AB3U2 sp3d Trigonal bipyramid T- shaped ClF3
AB2U3 sp3d Trigonal bipyramid Linear XeF2
AB6 sp3d2 Octahedral Octahedral SF6
AB5U sp3d2 Octahedral Square pyramid BrF5
AB4U2 sp3d2 Octahedral Square planar XeF4

Organic Chemistry (I): Formulas, Names & Properties
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of compounds that contain C—C or C—H bonds. Why is one
entire branch of chemistry devoted to the behavior of the compounds of just one element? The
answer is threefold:
(1) There are many more compounds that contain carbon than there are compounds that do not
(more than 11 million organic compounds have been identified).
(2) The molecules containing carbon can be so much larger and more complex (a methane molecule
contains five atoms per molecule and DNA contains tens of billions of atoms per molecule).
(3) Carbon is unique among the elements in the extent to which it forms two kinds of bonds (σ & π)
with different hybridizations (sp, sp2, and sp3).

Alkane Amine
Alkene Alkanoic acid

(Organic acid)
Alkyne
Families or Acyl halide
functional
Haloalkane groups of
Organic
Compounds Ester
Alkanol
(Alcohol)
Amide
Aldehyde (Y=H)
Ether (Alkanal)
133 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry Ketone (Y=R/Ar)

(Alkanone)
Classification of Hydrocarbons
Contain one or more aromatic

rings
(I) SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
1- Alkanes The formulas of the alkanes can be written in general terms as C nH2n+2,
where n is the number of carbon atoms per molecule. Table below lists
some straight-chain hydrocarbons (alkanes).
It can be noted that as the molecular weights of the straight-chain hydrocarbons

increase, their boiling points or melting point also increase regularly.
EXAMPLE.1. Write the Lewis formula of each of the three isomers having the
molecular formula of C5H12. The boiling points of the three isomers are 9.5 °C, 27.9 °C,
and 36.1 °C. Match each compound with its boiling point.
Solution :
The compound with the most branching would be expected to be the one with the lowest
boiling point, and the straight-chain isomer would be expected to have the highest boiling
point.
bp = 27.9 °C bp = 36.1 °C
bp = 9.5 °C
2- Cycloalkanes The cyclic saturated hydrocarbons, or cycloalkanes, have the general
formula CnH2n. The first four unsubstituted cycloalkanes and their simplified
representations are
In some of these structures, the bond angles are somewhat distorted from the ideal angle
of 109.5°, the most severe distortions being 60° in cyclopropane and 90° in cyclobutane.
As a result, these rings are said to be “strained,” and these two compounds are unusually
reactive for saturated hydrocarbons.

NAMING SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
IUPAC Rules for Naming Alkanes
1. Find the longest chain of C atoms. Choose the base name that describes the number of
C atoms in this chain, with the ending -ane. The longest chain may not be obvious at
first if branches of different sizes are present.
2. Number the C atoms in this longest chain beginning at the end nearest the first
branching. If necessary, go to the second branch closest to an end, and so on, until a
difference is located. If there is branching at equal distances from both ends of the
longest chain, begin numbering at the end nearest the branch that is first in
alphabetical order.
3. Assign the name and position number to each substituent. Arrange the substituents in
alphabetical order. Hyphenated prefixes, such as tert- and sec-, are not used in
alphabetization of the substituents.
4. Use the appropriate prefix to group like substituents: di- = 2, tri- = 3, tetra- = 4, penta-
= 5, and so on. Don’t consider these prefixes when alphabetizing attached groups.
5. Write the name as a single word. Use hyphens to separate numbers and letters (plus
some hyphenated prefixes) and commas to separate numbers. Don’t leave any spaces.

Some Alkyl Groups (—R)
cyclopropyl
methyl
sec-butyl
cyclobutyl
ethyl
cyclopentyl
propyl tert-butyl
cyclohexyl
isopropyl
EXAMPLE.2. Give the IUPAC name of the compound represented by the structural
formula, CH3C(CH3)2CH2CH3
Solution : We first find the longest carbon chain and number it to give the
substituent encountered first the smallest possible number.
1 2 3 4 5
2- methyl, 2- methyl, pentane 2,2- dimethylpentane
EXAMPLE.3. Give the IUPAC name of the compound represented by the structural
formula, CH3C(CH3)2CH2CH(C2H5)CH3
Solution : We first find the longest carbon chain and number it to give the
substituent encountered first the smallest possible number.
2- methyl, 2- methyl, 4- methyl, hexane 1 2 3 4
2,2,4- trimethylhexane 5
140 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry 6

EXAMPLE.4. Write the structure for 4-tert-butyl-2,5-dimethylheptane.
Solution : We first draw a seven - carbon chain and number it to give the substituent
the numbers indicated in the name.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Attach the alkyl group substituents to the chain, each to numbered C atom.
Then we fill in enough hydrogens to saturate each C atom and arrive at the structure

EXECISE. Write the structure for 2-cyclopropyl-3-ethylpentane
IUPAC Rules for Naming Cycloalkanes

(1) The base name is determined by the number of carbon atoms in the ring using the
same base name as the alkane with the addition of cyclo in front.
(2) If only one substituent is attached to the ring, no “location number” is required
because all positions in a cycloalkane are equivalent.
(3) Two or more functional groups on the ring are identified by location numbers, which
should be assigned sequentially to the ring carbons in the order that gives the
smallest sum of location numbers.
EXAMPLES

(II) UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
1- Alkenes The general formula for noncyclic alkenes is CnH2n. The simplest alkenes
contain one carbon–carbon double bond, C=C, per molecule. The simplest alkene is
C2H4, ethene, in which each C atom is sp2 hybridized.
EXAMPLES

IUPAC Rules for Naming Alkenes & Cycloalkenes

EXERCISE. Give the IUPAC names of the following alkenes:
EXERCISE. Write the skeletal representation of the following alkenes:

(a) 3-methylcyclohexene (b) 2,3- dimethylcyclopentene (c) 3-ethyl, 2-methyl-3-hexene .

2- Alkynes The general formula for noncyclic alkynes with one triple bond per
molecule is CnH2n-2. The simplest alkynes contain one carbon–carbon triple bond, C≡C,
per molecule. The simplest alkyne is C2H2, ethyne (acetylene), in which each C atom is sp
hybridized. π sp
σ sp σ
Acetylene H C C H
π σ
sp sp sp sp or σ σ
IUPAC Rules for Naming Alkynes

Examples:
EXAMPLE.5. Give the IUPAC names of the following alkynes:

(a) (b)
Solution :
2- butyne 3- methyl-1- butyne
1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1
(a) (b)
EXAMPLE.6. Write the structure for 5,5-dimethyl-2-heptyne

Solution : We first draw a seven - carbon chain with triple bond at carbon 2. Two
methyl groups are then attached to carbon 5, and sufficient hydrogens are added to
complete the bonding at each C atom.

EXAMPLE.7. Give the IUPAC name of the compound
Solution :
There are two ways in which we could choose and number such a chain, and in both
the triple bond would be between C atoms 3 and 4.
2-methyl-3-hexyne 5-methyl-3-hexyne
Because the methyl substituent (Rejected)

must have the lowest possible
number.

(III) AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
Originally the word “aromatic” was applied to pleasant-smelling substances. The word
now describes benzene, its derivatives, and certain other compounds that exhibit
similar chemical properties.
1-Benzene
Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. Elemental analysis and determination of
its molecular weight showed that the molecular formula for benzene is C 6H6. The
formula suggests that it is highly unsaturated. But its properties are quite different from
those of alkenes and alkynes.

2- Some Other Important Aromatic Hydrocarbons
C 3
Toluene, C6H5CH3 Naphthalene, C10H8
Anthracene, C14H10 Phenanthrene, C14H10

IUPAC Rules for Naming Derivatives of Benzene
1,2- dimethylbenzene, C6H5 (CH3)2 1,3- dimethylbenzene, C6H5 (CH3)2

(common name: o- xylene) (common name: m- xylene)
1,4- dimethylbenzene, C6H5 (CH3)2
Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry (common name: p- xylene)
151
EXAMPLE.8. Give the IUPAC names of the following aromatic compounds:
(a) (b) (c)
(a) ethylbenzene(b) 1,3- diethylbenzene

Solution : (b) 1,2,4- triethylbenzene
(m- diethylbenzene)
EXAMPLE.9. Give the IUPAC names of the following aromatic compounds:
(a) (b)
Solution :
We name mixed alkyl-aromatic hydrocarbons on the basis that (C6H5—) “phenyl” is

considered as a substituent group on aliphatic chain or ring
(a) phenylcyclohexane (b) 2-phenyl-2- butene

(IV) ORGANIC HALIDES
Almost any hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon can be replaced by a halogen atom to give
a stable compound called “haloalkane” or “ alkyl halide”.
IUPAC Rules for Naming Organic Halides

In the IUPAC naming system, the organic halides are named as halo- derivatives of the
parent hydrocarbons. The prefix halo- can be fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo-. Simple
alkyl chlorides are sometimes given common names as alkyl derivatives of the hydrogen
halides. For instance, the IUPAC name for CH3CH2-Cl is chloroethane; it is commonly
called ethyl chloride by analogy to H-Cl, hydrogen chloride.
EXAMPLES

A carbon atom can be bonded to as many as four halogen atoms, so an enormous
number of organic halides can exist. Completely fluorinated compounds are known as
fluorocarbons or sometimes perfluorocarbons. The fluorocarbons are even less reactive
than hydrocarbons. Saturated compounds in which all H atoms have been replaced by
some combination of Cl and F atoms are called chlorofluorocarbons or sometimes
freons.
EXAMPLE.10. Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:
(c)
(d)
(a) (CH3)2CHI (b) CH3ClC=CHCH2CH2Cl
Solution :
(a) (b)
1 4 5
1 2 3
2 3
2-iodopropane 2,5-dichloro-2-pentene
(c) (d)
1
6 2
5 3
3-chlorocyclopentene
4
1-bromo-2-chlorobenzene
(o-bromochlorobenzene)
(V) ALCOHOLS & PHENOLS
Alcohols and phenols contain the hydroxyl group (—O—H) as their functional group.
ALCOHOLS may be considered to be derived from saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons by the
replacement of at least one H atom by a hydroxyl group.
-H
+ O—H
Ethane Ethanol
PHENOLS are considered to derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbons, resulted when a hydrogen atom
on an aromatic ring is replaced by a hydroxyl group.
-H
+ O—H
Benzene Phenol
It is interesting to mention that PHENOLS behave more like acids than ALCOHOLS.

1- Classification of Alcohols
Alcohols are classified based on whether the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon that
is bonded to one, two, or three other carbon atoms:
Primary (1o) alcohols Secondary (2o) alcohols Tertiary (3o) alcohols
Primary alcohols contain Secondary alcohols contain Tertiary alcohols contain

one R group bonded to the two R groups bonded to the three R groups bonded to
carbon atom to which the carbon atom to which the the carbon atom to which
—OH group is attached. —OH group is attached. the —OH group is attached.
*Note that the R, R′, R˝ groups may be the same or different.

IUPAC Rules for Naming Alcohols
The systematic name of an alcohol consists of the root name plus an -ol ending. A
numeric prefix indicates the position of the —OH group on a chain of three or more
carbon atoms.
EXAMPLES R
3 2 1
IUPAC: methanol
Common: methyl alcohol IUPAC: 1-propanol
(wood alcohol) Common: propyl alcohol
a primary (1o) alcohol
R R
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
R′
IUPAC: 2-propanol
R R
Common: isopropyl alcohol
a secondary (2o) alcohol IUPAC: 2-methyl-2-butanol
Common: tert-pentyl alcohol
a tertiary (3o) alcohol
EXAMPLE.11. There are four constitutional isomers of the saturated acyclic four
carbon alcohols with one —OH per molecule. Write the structural formula of each,
and identify each as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Name each isomer.
Solution: 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
R CH3—CH2—CH2—CH2—OH R CH3—CH—CH2—CH3 R′
|
OH
a primary (1o) alcohol a secondary (2o) alcohol
IUPAC: 1-butanol IUPAC: 2-butanol
3 2 1 OH
3 2| 1
CH3—CH—CH2—OH
R | R CH3—C—CH3 R
|
CH3 CH3
R
a tertiary (3o) alcohol
a primary (1 ) alcohol
o
IUPAC: 2- methyl-2-propanol
IUPAC: 2- methyl-1-propanol
EXERCISE.12. Write structural formulas for and write the IUPAC names of all the
eight (saturated) alcohols that contain five carbon atoms and one —OH group per
molecule. Which ones may be classified as primary alcohols? secondary alcohols?
tertiary alcohols?
2- Polyhydric Alcohols
The polyhydric alcohols contain more than one —OH group per molecule. Those
containing two OH groups per molecule are called glycols.
Important examples of polyhydric alcohols
3 2 1 3 2 1
CH2—CH2 CH3 — CH — CH2 CH2—CH—CH2
| | | | | | | |
OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH
IUPAC: 1,2- propanediol
IUPAC: 1,2- ethanediol IUPAC: 1,2,3- propanetriol
Common: propylene glycol
Common: ethylene glycol Common: glycerine or glycerol
(the major ingredient in permanent antifreeze) (a moisturizer in cosmetics)
3- Phenols : Phenols are usually referred to by their common names. Examples are
resorcinol hydroquinone o-cresol m-cresol p-cresol

(VI) ETHERS
An ether is a compound in which an O atom is bonded to two organic groups.
Naming Rules Common names are used for ethers in any of these pattern
alkyl(1) alkyl(2) ether
Or alkoxy(1)alkane(2)
Types of ethers
Three kinds of ethers are known: (1) aliphatic, (2) aromatic, and (3) mixed.
(an aliphatic ether) (an aliphatic ether) (an aromatic ether) (a mixed ether)
methoxymethane methoxyethane phenoxybenzene methoxybenzene
dimethyl ether methyl ethyl ether diphenyl ether methyl phenyl ether

(VII) ALDEHYDES & KETONES
Aldehydes and ketones contain the carbonyl group,(C=O) . In aldehydes, at least one H atom is
bonded to the carbonyl group. Ketones have two carbon atoms bonded to a carbonyl group.
O O
|| ||
Aldehydes (H/C—C—H) have at least one Ketones (C—C—C) have two carbon
H atom is bonded to the carbonyl group. atoms bonded to a carbonyl group.
Common names are derived from the Common names are derived by naming
name of the acid with the same number akyl or aryl groups attached to
of C atoms (the suffix -aldehye is added carbonyl group (followed by the word
to the characteristic stem). “ketone”
The systematic (IUPAC) name is The systematic (IUPAC) names are
derived from the name of the parent derived from the name of the parent
hydrocarbon (the suffix -al is added to hydrocarbon (the suffix -one is added
the characteristic stem). to the characteristic stem).
1-Examples of Aldehydes
formaldehyde acetaldehyde propionaldehyde benzaldehyde

IUPAC: methanal IUPAC: ethanal IUPAC: propanal
2-Examples of Ketones
3 2 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
acetone methyl ethyl ketone diethyl ketone

IUPAC: 2- porpanone IUPAC: 2- butanone IUPAC: 3- pentanone
EXAMPLE.13. Write the structure of the following compounds:

(a) 3- chloropentanal (b) 3-ethylcyclohexanone
(c) 3-methylbutanone (d) ethyl isoprpyl ketone
(e) 4-methyl-3-hexanone
Structures of some naturally occurring aldehydes and ketones

EXERCISES
1- Write structural formulas for the isomeric saturated hydrocarbons having the molecular
formula C6H14. Which one would have the highest boiling point?
2- Write the structural formulas for (a) 2,2-dimethylpropane, (b) 1,1,2-trimethylcyclohexane, (c)
isopropylcyclobutane, and (d) sec-butylcyclohexane.
3- Write the IUPAC name for each of the following.
4- Write the structural formulas of the following compounds: (a) 3-hexyne; (b) 1,3-pentadiene; (c)
3,3-dimethylcyclobutene; (d) 3,4-diethyl-1-hexyne.
5- Write the IUPAC names for the following compounds.
(e) (h)
(a) (c)
(f) (i)
(b) (d)
(g) (j)

EXERCISES
6- Write the structural formulas for the following compounds: (a) p-difluorobenzene; (b)
ethylbenzene; (c) 1,3,5-tribromobenzene; (d) 1,3-diphenylbutane; (e) p-chlorotoluene.
7- Write the IUPAC names for the following compounds.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i) (j) (k)

EXERCISES
8- Give the IUPAC name for each of the following compounds.
9- Name the following compounds.

EXERCISES
10- Identify and name the functional groups in each of the following compounds.
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(e)
11- Identify and name the functional groups in each of the following compounds.
(b) epinephrine (adrenaline) (c) Glucose
(a) morphine
(d) Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

EXERCISES
12- Name the following compounds.

EXERCISES
13- Lidocaine has replaced Novocain (procaine) as the favored anesthetic in dentistry. What
functional group do the two compounds have in common?

Fundamental Classes of Organic Reactions
Nearly all organic transformations involve at least one of three fundamental classes of
reactions; substitution, addition, and elimination reactions.
(I) SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS
In a substitution reaction an atom or a group of atoms attached to a carbon atom is
removed, and another atom or group of atoms takes its place. No change occurs in the
degree of saturation at the reactive carbon atom.
EXAMPLES

(II) ADDITION REACTIONS
An addition reaction involves an increase in the number of atoms or groups attached to
carbon. The molecule becomes more nearly saturated.
EXAMPLES

(III) ELIMINATION REACTIONS
An elimination reaction involves a decrease in the number of atoms or groups attached
to carbon. The degree of unsaturation increases.
EXAMPLE
EXERCISES
1- Which of the following compounds could undergo addition reactions? (a) propane; (b)
cyclopentene; (c) acetone.
2- Describe a chmical reaction that you can perform it experimentally to distinguish between
alkenes and alkanes?
3- Write equations to illustrate both aromatic and aliphatic substitution reactions of toluene
using (a) chlorine, (b) bromine, and (c) nitric acid.
4- Classify each reaction as substitution, addition, or elimination.
173 5- Describe a simple

Dr. Niyazi A. test to distinguish between
S. Al-Areqi Generalthe two isomers 2-pentene and cyclopentane.
Chemistry
SHAPES OF ORGANIC MOLECULES
Isomers are substances that have the same number and kind of atoms— that is, the same
molecular formula— but with different structural formulas. Because their structures are
different, isomers are different substances and have different properties.
Isomers
Constitutional Stereoisomers
(Structural)
Geometric Optical
(cis- or trans- ) (enantiomers)
(D- or L- )
174
(I) Constitutional (Structural) Isomers
Constitutional (or structural) isomers differ in the order in which their atoms are
bonded together.
EXAMPLES
(1) C5H12 formula has three constitutional isomers
These three constitutional isomers differ in the branching
(2) C6H10 formula has three constitutional isomers
These three constitutional isomers differ in positions of the functional group (double
bonds) but do not differ in the type of functional groups
(3) C3H10O2 formula has two constitutional isomers
These two constitutional isomers differ in positions of the functional group (hydrohyl ,
-OH) but do not differ in the type of functional groups
(4) C6H4Cl2 formula has three constitutional isomers that only differ in the positions
of chlorine atoms

(5) C2H6O formula can exist in two constitutional isomers that differ type of
functional group (e.g. alcohol and ether)
(6) C4H8O formula can also exist in two constitutional isomers with different
functional groups (e.g. aldehyde and ketone)

(II) Stereoisomers
In stereoisomers the atoms are linked together in the same atom-to-atom order, but their
arrangements in space are different.
There are two types of stereoisomers: geometric and optical.
(II-A) Geometric Isomers

Geometric isomers (or cis–trans isomers) differ only in the spatial orientation of groups
about a plane or direction. Two geometric isomers have the same molecular formula, the
same functional groups, the same base chain or ring, and the same order of attachment
of atoms; they differ in orientation either (1) around a double bond or (2) across the ring
in a cyclic compound. If the larger groups are on opposite sides of the ring or the double
bond, the designation trans appears in the name; if they are on the same side, the
designation is cis.
A B B B
C C C C
B trans- A A cis- A
EXAMPLES
(1) Two geometrical isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene are possible because rotation about
the double bond is restricted.
cis-1,2-dichloroethene trans-1,2-dichloroethene
(2) 4-Methyl-2-pentene can exist as either of two geometrical isomers.
4-methyl-cis-2-pentene 4-methyl-trans-2-pentene

(3) 1,2-dichlorocyclopropane can also have two geometrical isomers.
H H
H H Cl H
H H
Cl Cl H Cl
cis- 1,2-dichlorocyclopropane trans- 1,2-dichlorocyclopropane
EXERCISE. Write the geometrical structures for the following:

(a) cis-1- chloro-3-methylcyclopentane
(b) trans-1-chloro-3-methylcyclopentane
(c) cis-1-chloro-3-methylcyclopentane
(d) 3-methyl-cis-2-pentene.

(II-B) Optical Isomers
Optical isomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other (chiral) are
called enantiomers of one another. Enantiomers can exist in two forms that bear the
same relationship to each other as do left and right hands.
An object that is not superimposable with its mirror image is said to be chiral (from
the Greek word cheir, meaning “hand”); an object that is superimposable with its
mirror image is said to be achiral. Examples of familiar objects that are chiral are a
screw, a propeller, a foot, an ear, and a spiral staircase; examples of common objects
that are achiral are a plain cup with no decoration, a pair of eyeglasses, and a sock.
Rule
If an organic compound contain at least one carbon B
atom to which four different groups are bonded , this
compound is said to be chiral. Therefore, the two
mirror – image forms of the compounds are optical
isomers of each other. One isomer that can rotate a
plane of polarized light to the right with a definite C
positive angle (dextrorotatory) is called “D- isomer”
and another isomer rotating the polarized light to the C A
left with a definite negative angle (laevorotatory) is
called “L-isomer”. D
Chiral carbon atom
EXAMPLE: CH2BrCl
The two models (A) and (C) of two mirror-image forms of bromochloromethane,
CH2BrCl are the same (superimposable), so (A) and (B) are achiral. CH2BrCl does not
exhibit optical isomerism.
Interchange H & Cl
Br Br Br
C C C
H Cl Cl H H Cl
H H H
(A) (B) (C)

EXAMPLE: CHBrClI
The two models (A) and (C) of two mirror-image forms of bromochloroiodomethane,
CHBrClI are not the same (non- superimposable), so (A) and (B) are chiral and they are
optical isomers of each other.
Interchange Cl & Br
H H H
Cl C C Cl C Br
I I I
Br Br Cl
(A) (B) (C)

D- isomer L- isomer
D referred to as dextrorotatory L referred to as leavoorotatory
(i.e. rotation to the right) (i.e. rotation to the left)

EXERCISES:
1. Which of the following compounds can exist as cis and trans isomers? Draw them.
(a) 1-butene (b) 2-bromo-1-butene (c) 2-bromo-2-butene
(d) 1,2 dichlorocyclopentane.
2. Which of the following compounds would exhibit optical isomerism?
3. Draw three- dimensional representations of the enantiomeric pairs in Exercise 2.

4. Write formulas and names for the isomers of (a) bromochlorobenzene, (b)
trifluorobenzene, and (c) chlorotoluene. What kind of isomerism is illustrated by
each of these sets of compounds?
5. Write formulas and names for the isomers of (a) propanol, (b) pentachloropropene,
and (c) chlorofluoroethane.

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General Chemistry (1)

Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi

2 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry (1)

 General Chemistry Written Full ,  Gary Thorpe, Cliffs AP Chemistry,

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150-mL beaker (bottom left, green liquid)

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He his atomic theory called Dalton’s Atomic Theory. The Dalton’s

(d) Interaction of cathode

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16 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

The series of lines produced by the electron falling to the

How many orbitals can exist in the

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Suppose the abundance % of = x % and that of = (100- x) %

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Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

(a) The relative directional character of a set of p (b) A model of three p

Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

Example for Rule 2:

Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6/4s2,3d10,4p6/5s2,4d10,5p6/6s2,4f14, 5d10, 6p6/….

(a) 12Mg: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2

(a) 32Ge: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p6/4s2,3d10,4p2

First we should find the electron configuration of N (Z=7)

Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

Cl: 1s2/2s2, 2p6/3s2, 3p5

Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

What do you understand by the

38 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

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Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

F < Cl < K < Cs

Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General

General trends in first

44 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

Plot of electron affinity (EA)

46 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

47 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

Covalent bond A—B For the representative elements,

Lower electronegative atom Higher electronegative

49 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

Losing an electron +e-

Example (3) 1s2/2s2 1s2= [He]

Example (4) 1s /2s , 2p /3s

52 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

Li Losing 1 e- Li+ Be2+ Losing 2 e-

F Gaining 1 e- F- O2- Gaining 2 e-

F- Isoelectronic ions O2-

r =1.19 Å F- O2- r =1.26 Å

55 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

General trends in ionic radii of A group

56 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

59 Dr. Niyazi A. S. Al-Areqi General Chemistry

Types of Chemical Bonding