IMMUNOLOGY

Dr. A.K.M. Akbar Kabir

The primary lymphoid organs >>>provide
appropriate microenvironments for the
development and maturation of
lymphocytes.
The secondary lymphoid organs>>>trap
antigen from defined tissues or vascular
spaces and are sites where mature
lymphocytes can interact effectively
with that antigen.
Blood vessels and lymphatic systems
connect these organs, uniting them into
a functional whole.
Carried within the blood and lymph and
populating the lymphoid organs are
various white blood cells, or leukocytes,
that participate in the immune
response.
Of these cells, only the lymphocytes
possess the attributes of diversity,
specificity, memory, and self/nonself
recognition, the hallmarks of an
adaptive immune response.
All the other cells play accessory roles
in adaptive immunity, serving to activate
lymphocytes, to increase the
effectiveness of antigen clearance by
phagocytosis, or to secrete various
immune-effector molecules.
Hematopoiesis
Blood cells (both white and red) are formed
from hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) by a
process known as hematopoiesis.
 Hematopoiesis…
HSCs are first formed in the embryonic yolk sac,
then migrate to the fetal liver and spleen, which
become the major hematopoietic organs during the
third-seventh months of embryogenesis

Bone marrow becomes the major location of HSC

differentiation after the seventh month of
embryogenesis, and continues this role throughout
life
Granulocytes
20-30 µm in diameter
have a multilobed nucleus:
with loosely packed strands of intensely
basophilic chromatin
surrounded by a moderate amount of
lightly basophilic cytoplasm containing
large numbers of granules
Neutrophils
phagocytic effectors of antibody-mediated
immunity and hypersensitivity
Eosinophils
help regulate inflammatory responses
active in antibody-mediated cytolysis of
immature forms of intestinal parasites
Basophils
help generate inflammatory responses
mediators of immediate (type I) hypersensitivity
Mast Cells
tissue cells with histamine-rich cytoplasmic
granules and FcR that bind IgE molecules (~10X
more of each than found in basophils)
help generate inflammatory responses
tissue mediators of immediate (type I)
hypersensitivity
Monocytes
engulf and digest foreign matter
phagocytic effectors of cell-mediated immunity and
hypersensitivity
Macrophages
derived from monocytes after they migrate into
tissues (e.g. histiocytes in connecitve tissue, alveolar
macrophages in lung, microglial cells in CNS,
mesangial cells in kidney, Kupffer cells in liver,
osteoclasts in bone, etc.)
Macrophages…
cytoplasm contains numerous granules and vacuoles,
especially when activated by T lymphocyte
cytokines, such as interferon-gamma
engulf and digest foreign matter
active in antigen processing and presentation
phagocytic effectors of cell-mediated immunity
and hypersensitivity
Dendritic Cells
Dendritic Cells are covered with long membrane
extensions (that make them look like dendrites in
nervous tissues ... hence the name)

1. Circulating dendritic cells

constitute 0.1% of blood leukocytes and are also
found in lymph ("veiled" cells)
develop into mature tissue dendritic cells (?)
Interdigitating dendritic cells
found in T cell rich regions of secondary
lymphoid tissues
process and present antigen to T cells
Dendritic Cells…

2. Interstitial dendritic cells

found in most organs ... lungs, liver, heart,
kidney, digestive tract, etc.
process and present antigen to T cells

3. Langerhans cells
found in epidermis of skin
process and present antigen to T cells
Lymphoid Cells
Responsible for immune responses
Cytoplasm is lightly basophilic and variable in
amount ... less cytoplasm in "resting" lymphocytes and
more in "activity" lymphocytes
T Lymphocytes develop in thymus
T helper cells (Th) can synthesize and secrete
cytokines and function to regulate immune responses
(both antibody and cell-mediated) when
appropriately stimulated during immune responses
T cytotoxic cells (Tc) are mature precursor cells
that, as a result of a cell-mediated immune response,
differentiate into cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
which mediate cellular immunity vs. virus-infected
cells and tumor cells
Natural Killer (NK) Cells
develop in several lymphoid tissues ... some in
thymus, others in bone marrow
not antigen-specific, but can recognize "self" cells
active in early phases of cell-mediated immune
responses ... synthesize and secrete cytokines
that promote these responses
Organs of the Immune System
 Primary lymphoid organs
Bone marrow
Thymus

 Secondary lymphoid organs

Lymph nodes
Spleen
Mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Cutaneous-associated lymphoid tissue
Bone marrow
site of hematopoiesis and B lymphocyte development
Bone marrow is a loosely-organized grouping of cells
located in central soft tissue portion of bones
(surrounded by the calcified matrix) throughout
the body
Reticular cells form a matrix within which the
other bone marrow cells interact
Other cells found here include hematopoietic
stem cells and progenitor cells, as well as immature
and mature forms of all blood cells
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) present in the bone
marrow are responsible for development of all
blood cells after about the seventh month of
gestation in humans
Bone marrow…
B lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes and
erythrocytes all develop to maturity in the bone
marrow before they are released into the
bloodstream for transport to other locations in the
body
Pro T lymphocytes (immature T cells) are released
into the bloodstream before final maturation as
a matter of course ... in contrast to
granulocytes and erythrocytes, which may be
released into the bloodstream in immature forms in
times of great need
Thymus
site of T lymphocyte development
Bilobed organ that lies within a fat deposit together
with the periaortic lymph node just anterior to the
heart in the thoracic cavity
Two types of tissue (with a transitional region
between them) that both contain reticular cells
(stromal cells) and developing T lymphocytes (T cells)
are randomly situated in clusters throughout the
thymus:
Cortical (cortex) is an area of intense T cell
developmental activity
Medullary (medulla) is a "staging" area where
mature "single-positive" T lymphocytes migrate
before being released into the bloodstream
Mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
generally consists of rather loosely-organized
lymphoid cells that are associated with mucosal tissues
that line the:
Digestive tract, including:
Tonsils ... lingual, palatine and pharyngeal (denoids)
Lamina proprial and submucosal lymphoid follicles of
the small intestine ... including Peyer's patches
Appendix
Respiratory and urogenital tracts contain
other, more loosely-organized lymphoid follicles
Cutaneous-associated lymphoid tissue of
the epidermis contains intraepidermal lymphocytes
and Langerhans (dendritic) cells which can process
and present antigen to T cells ... they even migrate
to local lymph nodes after they have been
phagocytized exogenous antigen (presumably just
so they can present their processed antigen to T
cells)