Normative Theories of Mass

Media
Dr. Ifra Iftikhar
 Normative Theory
• Normative theories of the press: Ideal views of how
journalism/ media ought to, or are expected to,
operate – what is desirable in relation to both
structure and performance): “Journalists/ journalism
should or could do this or that.”
 Structure and Performance
• Structure – e.g. freedom from the state, multiplicity
of different channels.
• Performance – e.g. how the media carry out their
chosen or allotted informative or entertaining tasks.
Conventions, genres, professional guidelines and
ethical rules, which apply to what the media do.
 Four Theories of the Press
The Four Theories of the Press (Schramm, Siebert,
Peterson. 1956)
Basic theories:
• Authoritarian Theory
• Libertarian Theory
Variations:
• Social responsibility Theory
• Soviet communist Theory
 McQuail’s Addition In Theories Of The
Press

Additions made by Denis McQuail. (Mass

Communication Theory: An Introduction):
• Development Media Theory
• Democratic-participant Theory
 Authoritarian Theory
• Applies to authoritarian societies, but can also be
seen in less authoritarian societies (particularly in
times of war, terrorism)
• Depends on the media forms specially Print
Journalism and TV - subject to greater control in
some countries
 Authoritarian Assumptions
• Press should do nothing to undermine vested
power and interests;
• Press should be subordinate to vested power
and authority;
• Press should avoid acting in contravention of
prevailing moral and political values;
• Censorship justified in the application of these
principles;
• Criminalisation of editorial attacks on vested
power, deviations from official policy, violation
of moral codes.
 Authoritarian Assumptions contd.
• Media is an instrument / mouthpiece to publicise
and propagandise government ideology and actions.
• Absolute power of state versus subservience of the
individual – press ‘freedom’ a right vested in the
state.
• Whatever the publications are, must to have a
license for all.
– Examples: Fascist regimes, some African countries, communist countries
– Current example from the modern world; North Korea, Albania
 Libertarian Theory
A Road to Modernised Press
• Modernity: Rise of democracy, religious freedom,
expansion of economic freedom, philosophical
climate of the Enlightenment
• Undermined authoritarianism – emphasis on personal
freedom and democracy
• The idea that people are rational – can distinguish
between truth and falsehood, and between good and
evil.
 Classical Liberal Perspective
– Free market as foundation of free media;
– Freedom to publish without prior restriction –
independence from government;
– Public has access to wide diversity of opinion
(only limitation on freedom to publish is
public willingness to pay);
– Market-based diversity promotes public
rationality – free marketplace of ideas and
information as a self-righting mechanism,
minimises bias and exposes weak arguments
and evidence.
 Libertarian Assumptions
– Press should be free from any external censorship;
– Publication and distribution should be accessible
to any individual or group with a permit or license;
– Attacks on governments or parties should not be
punishable;
– No coercion to publish anything;
– Freedom of access to information.
 Libertarian Assumptions contd.
• Press is source of information and platform for
expression of a range of divergent opinions;
enables people to monitor government and form
ideas about policy.
• Objectivity: As newspapers gradually lose their
party affiliations, journalists will work to
establish their independence as searchers after
“objective truth”.
• Independence from government control and
influence – if media is subject to public
regulation it will lose its bite as a watchdog.
Another Strand in Liberal Tradition
– Media as representative agency (‘Fourth Estate’
alongside executive, legislative and judicial
authorities) or as a watchdog protecting the public
(individuals rights), overseeing the state.
– Watchdog reveals abuses in the exercise of state
authority… this role overrides all other functions of
the media and dictates the form in which the
media should be organised, i.e. the free market.
– “The best stories are those that afflict the
comfortable and comfort the afflicted, the ones
that the people of power do not want told.” Peter
Beaumont and John Sweeney, The Observer
 Critique on Libertarian theory
Curran
•media’s representative role conceived primarily in terms of
articulating public opinion, which is the sum of individual
opinion.
•How should media relate to representative structures as
distinct from individuals – role of media in mediating class and
other conflict in society?
•Also, little account of how power is exercised through non-
state structures, like property and patriarchy.
•Is a free press an end in itself, a means to an end, or an
absolute right?
•Freedom can be abused. Absolute freedom is anarchy.
 Setting Boundaries in Libertarian
• Boundaries of freedom defined in such a way that
they do not infringe the rights of the individual.
• Abolition of censorship; but, also the introduction of
press laws designed to protect individual rights
(protection of reputation, privacy, moral development
of individuals or groups, security of the state) – could
override the right of the press’s freedom to publish.
 Social Responsibility Theory
• Hutchins Commission, 1947 – reaffirmed the
principles of freedom/ independence but added to
them the notion of social responsibility.
• Media operate in capitalist economy, but some
believe the market can function benignly (not just in
the interests of shareholders but of all people).
Premises of Social Responsibility
• McQuail:
– Media have important function to fulfil in society
(support democratic political principles);
– Media are under obligation to fulfil their social
functions (transmission of information and
creation of a forum for different viewpoints);
– Independence of media emphasised in relation to
their responsibility towards society;
– Media should meet certain standards.
 Freedom With Responsibility
– Regulation
• Promotion of political and cultural
pluralism – independent public institutions
for control of broadcasting
• Balance of public and private ownership
– Professionalism:
• Codes of conduct
• Training and continuing development of
professionalism, to advance and nurture
balanced and impartial news presentation.
Social Responsibility Assumptions (McQuail)
– Media should accept responsibilities towards society
– Media should guarantee professionalism i.e., the truth,
accuracy, objectivity and balanced reporting
– Media should apply self-regulation
– Media should avoid publicising information that can lead
to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as
information that can offend ethnic or religious minorities
– Media collectively should represent all social groups and
reflect the diversity of society by giving people access to a
variety of viewpoints and opportunity to react to them.
 Soviet Communist Press Theory
• Western notions of freedom of press rejected by
Soviet block as being fundamentally ‘unfree’ because
Western media are controlled by capitalist economic
interests (prevent them from publishing the Marxist
truth).
• Communist press – no profit motive. It means that it
did not foreground special, elite interests in Soviet
society
 Assumptions
– Media should act in the interests of and be
controlled by the working class
– Media should not be under private control
– Media should perform positive functions for
society, such as socialisation (to make people
conform to desirable norms), education, the supply
of information, motivation and mobilisation of the
masses
– Media should respond to the desire and needs of
their recipients
 More Assumptions
– Society has right to use censorship and other legal
measures to prevent and punish anti-social
publication
– Media should reflect complete and objective view
of world and society in terms of Marxist-Leninist
principles
– Media should support communist movements
everywhere
 A Brief Critique Of Libertarian And Social
Responsibility Theories
A political critique:
• Journalism in capitalist societies functions in the interests not
of society as a whole, but of dominant groups and classes
• Concepts like free press, democracy, the public interest,
objectivity, neutrality seen as usual tradition
• All research processes – including journalism – seen as value-
laden and methodological decisions political.
• “Washing one’s hands of the conflict between the
powerful and the powerless means to side with the
powerful, not to be neutral.”
Paulo Freire
Other Problems With Modern Media
– Lack of democracy within media organisations;
– Governmental secrecy;
– Institutionalised racist and patriarchal codes;
– Commodification of culture:
• Are we being addressed as citizens or as
consumers? Shift away from involving people
in societies as political citizens of nation
states towards involving them as consumption
units in a globalized corporate world.
 Additions of Denis McQuail
Development Media Theory
• This theory is related to Media operations and
development in the third world countries
• Media are seen as struggling to fulfil social and
Political duties in these states
• In this theory it is considered that “BAD NEWS IS
GOOD NEWS” because it commands bigger
headlines
(Watson; 2003)
 Development Media Theory
• The theory illustrates that the bad news story must be
treated very carefully as it can be damaging for the
nations; specially economical growth
• It also explains the importance of cultures of different
culture of third world
• It can be said that this theory is both; The Theory of
State Support and Resistance
 Democratic-Participant Theory
This theory tells about;
 The new media trends and developments in the
world
 Criticism on the private and public monopoly
in mass media
 Democratic Participant Theory doesn’t warrant
a separate normative classification
(McQuail)
 About the new focus towards positive strategy
of media institutions
 Democratic-Participant Theory
 It stands for defence against commercialization and
monopoly
 Resistant to centralism and bureaucracy
Watson; 2003
 The role of receiver in the process of communication
and incorporated receiver’s rights
To receive the relevant information
To reply
To be informed on the local issues
To use the new means of communication for interaction
and social setting of community, interest group or sub-
culture
 Conclusion
• The Authoritarian and Libertarian Theories are
the basic theories while others are related to
these two
• The Authoritarian theory is the ancient form of
the Soviet Theory; the difference is only that the
press under authoritarian system can be private
owned while in Soviet Theory it is public owned
property
• In other words the Soviet Authoritarian system
can also be called the Totalitarian System
• The authoritarian theory has least similarities
with rest of the theories; especially Libertarian
Theories
 Conclusions
• The Libertarian Theory flourishes in democratic
societies and has maximum similarities with
Social Responsibility, Democratic participant
Theory and Development Media Theory
• All these inter-related theories ensure the
protection of individual rights
• However, these related theories have far less
faith in the protection of individual rights than
Libertarian theory
• In modern world with diverse systems of states;
the implementation of these theories may not
be correlated with the system.