UNIT-5

CELLULAR
METABOLISM
5.1.ENZYMES
 5.1 ENZYMES:

5.1.1 CHEMICAL NATURE OF ENZYMES

 Metabolism is the sum total of all ANABOLIC &

CATABOLIC reactions.
 In living cells there is a continual anabolic & catabolic
reactions to maintain life.
 Cellular metabolic reactions are mediated [facilitated] by
agents called ENZYMES.
 The speed of a reaction depends on the ACTIVATION ENERGY
necessary to initiate it.
 Energy is the ability [capacity] to do work.

 The process of influencing chemical reactions in a way that lowers

activation energy is called CATALYSIS.
 Substances that perform catalysis are called catalysts.

 Catalysts reduce the amount of activation energy required and

increase the rate [speed] of reactions.
 Enzymes are proteins & are belonged to the class of
substances known as catalysts.
 A catalyst is a substance which regulates the speed at
which a chemical reaction occurs with out itself
undergoing change.
 A catalyst can be organic or inorganic & is not used up in
the reaction[is not part of the reaction it catalyzes].
 5.1.2. MECHANISMES OF ENZYME ACTION

 The chemistry of life [metabolism] is organized by

controlling the points at which catalysis takes place.
 Enzymes are agents that perform catalysis in living cells.

 Are globular proteins that put stress on particular

chemical bonds & lower the activation energy to form
new bonds.
 Enzymes possess depressions called ACTIVE SITES
where catalysis occurs.
 The substances catalyzed[acted upon] by enzymes are
called SUBSTRATES.
 Substrates fit to the active sites of enzymes specifically
forming ENZYME-SUBSTRATE complexes.
 In the enzyme - substrate complexes, enzymes
chemically bind to the substrates, stress particular bonds
and lower the activation energy to break the bonds
 5.1.3. PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

 Most enzymes are proteins.

 Regulate[speed up] the rate of chemical reactions.

 Are specific in their actions[one enzyme can only catalyze one or a

few reactions].
 Are very efficient catalysts.

 Are sensitive to heat& PH value of a medium.

 Are released free after the reaction is completed [with out them
selves under going changes] .
 Are used over & over.
5.1.4.FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION

A. TEMPERATURE:
 Most enzymes have optimum temperature to function.
 Change in temperature alters the shape of enzymes
[proteins] necessary for catalysis.
 Warm blooded animals regulate to keep their body
temperature constant to ensure normal enzymatic actions.

B. PH VALUE:
 Most enzymes have optimal PH value at which they work best.

 A change in PH value of a given medium affects the action of

enzymes.
 C. CHEMICALS:

 Presence of specific chemicals that bind to specific binding sites of

enzymes alter their shapes.
 These specific chemicals enable cells to regulate which enzyme
should be active/ inactive at a particular time.
 When the change in shape of the enzyme by the binding chemical
shuts off its activity, the chemical is called an INHIBITOR.
 When the change in the shape of the enzyme by the binding
chemical becomes necessary for catalysis, the chemical is called an
ACTIVATER.
 Enzymes have special binding sites[other than active
sites] for inhibitors/activators that affect their actions.
 The change in shape of the enzyme that occurs when an
inhibitor/activator binds to an enzyme is known as
ALLOSTERIC change[Greek, Allos=other & steros=
change].
 Many reactions in the body cells are self-regulating ,as
their end products bind to the initial enzyme & shut
down the path way when it is no longer needed
5.2 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
5.2.CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 The term cellular respiration refers to the enzymatic
processes within each cell by which molecules of
carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids metabolized to
water, carbon dioxide and energy.
 The biologically useful energy from the breakdown of
food stuff is stored in the form of ATP.
 ATP is the energy currency of the cell.

 All energy requiring reactions of cellular metabolism

utilize ATP to drive the reaction
5.2.1 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

GLYCOLYSIS: the formation of pyruvic acid.

• Means splitting of glucose molecule to form two
molecules of pyruvic acid.
• This occurs by 10 successive steps of chemical reactions.

• Each step is catalyzed by at least one specific enzyme.

• Consumes 2 ATP molecules at the beginning and release

4 ATP molecules at the end, then the net gain is 2 ATP.
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
• Since the process of ATP formation is from glucose-
pyruvic acid intermediate compounds in the absence of
oxygen, it is known as substrate-phosphorylation.
• The next process is transportation of pyruvic acid into
the matrix of mitochondria to form acetyl coenzyme-A
(Acetyl-CoA) and join the citric acid cycle /Kreb’s
cycle/.

2 pyruvic acid + 2 co-enzyme A

2 acetyl-CoA + 2 CO2 + 4H
 When there is an insufficient oxygen supply,
Oxidative phosphorylation does not occur.
 Small ATP are formed by glycolysis to supply energy to the cells.
 This glycolytic energy is called anaerobic energy.
 This energy can be life-saving measure for up to a few minutes when
oxygen becomes unavailable.
 Excessive accumulation of glycolytic products (pyruvic acid
and hydrogen) inhibits glycolytic reactions and further
formation of ATP.
 During such condition, the two end products react with each
other to form lactic acid.

Pyruvic acid + NADH + H Lactic acid + NAD

 When oxygen becomes available again, lactic acid is

converted back to pyruvic acid to join the citric acid cycle.
5.2.2 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
 The principal substances from which cells extract energy are
oxygen and food stuffs (CH20, fats and proteins).
 In the human body CH20s are converted into mono
saccharides; amino acids & fatty acids by the GIT and Liver
before they reach the cells.
 All these food stuffs react with oxygen under the influence
of enzymes to release energy /ATP/ .
 Almost all these reaction occur inside the mitochondria and
the process is called oxidative phosphorylation.
 Adenosine triphosphate /ATP/ is the immediate source of
energy to energize intracellular reactions.
 CITRIC ACID CYCLE /KREBS’/ CYCLE

 Also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle.

 Occurs in successive steps in the matrix of mitochondria.

 Since this process releases ATP in the presence of

oxygen, it is called oxidative phosphorylation.
 The cycle begins with oxaloacetic acid combined with
Acetyl Co-A to form citric acid + Co-A.
 At the end of the chain of reactions, oxaloacetic acid is
formed again and the cycle continues over and over.
 In the initial stage of the citric acid cycle, acetyl-CoA
combines with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid.
 The CoA portion of acetyl-CoA is released and can be
used again and again to form more acetyl- CoA from
pyruvic acid.
 The acetyl portion becomes an integral part of the citric
acid molecule.
 5.3.PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
5.3.1.
 INTRODUCTION:
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Is one of the oldest and most fundamental processes of life.

Firstevolved among bacteria billions of years a ago.
Began to use solar energy to split H2S [hydrogen sulfide] & release sulfur as a byproduct.
Later, in cyanobacteria a new system evolved in which water is splited & release oxygen as a

byproduct.
The outcome of this form of photosynthesis has been the production of an atmosphere rich in

oxygen.
This atmosphere has set the stage for the evolution of all complex forms of life on the planet earth.
Of the total radiant energy that reaches the earth:
 - About one third is radiated back in to the space .
 - Most is absorbed by the earth & converted to heat.
 - Less than 1% of the solar energy is captured in photosynthesis to provide chemical
energy that drives life activities.

poloik
 The essence of photosynthesis is converting solar energy in to
chemical energy in the form of gyceraldehyd-3-phosphate, ATP &
NADPH.
 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is further converted in to sugar &
other organic compounds.
 Photosynthetic Organisms are : -green plants

 -Algae
 -Cyanobacteria
 These all use sun light to make their own food & are called

photoautotrophs.
 Animals, Fungi, & most bacteria use ready made food stuffs &are
called Heterotrophs.
 A third group of bacteria synthesize sugar by extracting from
inorganic compounds, & are known as chemoautotrophs.
 5.3.2. THE BIOPHYSICS OF LIGHT.
 Light is a form of Electromagnetic Energy.

 Consists of many units of energy levels called photons.

 Not all photons have the same amount of energy and wave
length.
 The energy content of photons is inversely proportional to its
wave length.
 The shorter the wave length, the greater is the energy.

 With an increasing order of their wave lengths, light spectra are

arranged as such:
 Gamma rays X-rays UV-rays Visible light
Infrared Radio waves
 Gamma rays have the shorter wave length[less than 1 nm] & the
greater energy.
 Radio waves on the other hand; have longer wave length[1ooos of
meters] & lesser energy.
 Sun light contains photons of many different energy
levels[photons].
 Our eye perceives only the visible light

 Visible light ranges from violet[380nm] to red[750 nm].

 A given atom or a molecule has a characteristic range[absorption

spectrum] of photons that it is capable of absorbing depending on
the electron energy level available on it.

 5.3.3. PIGMENTS:

 Provide color to plants, Algae & bacteria.

 Can effectively capture sun light.

 Pigments of different colors capture different wave lengths of sun

light depending on the energy level available in the molecule to
which light-excited electrons can be boosted.
 Main groups of pigments are:

 1 -Chlorophyll

 2- Carotenoids

 3- Phycobilins -Red or blue in color

 -absorb photons that are not absorbed by

chlorophyll & carotenoids
 - Found in cyanobacteria & red algae.
 4- Antennae- large collection of pigments.
 - Effective in capturing sun light.
 CAROTENOIDS:
 Red, orange or yellow.
 Absorb bluish- green light

 Xanthophyll [yellow] & Carotene [orange] are examples.

 A typical carotenoid is the Beta-carotene.

 Splitting a molecule of Beta-carotene produces vitamin-A

 When Vit.A is oxidized, Retinal, the pigment used in human vision

is produced.
 Retinal absorbs photons that produce light ranging from violet-
red[visible light].
 Visible light determines the range of colors that we can see.
 CHLOROPHYLL:
 Two main types in plants, chlorophyll-a & b.
 Use a metal central atom [magnesium] to capture photons.

 Photons absorbed by pigment excite electrons of the magnesium

atom.
 Can absorb only photons of narrow energy ranges [primarily
violet-blue& red light].
 They reflect photons with 500-600nm wave lengths.

 Chlorophyll ‘b’ has one oxygen more & two hydrogens less than
chlorophyll ‘a’.
CHLOROPLAST:
 Surrounded by two membranes.
 Has two main regions linked to the stages of photosynthesis called
grana & stroma.
 Grana - a membranous regions in a chloroplast, each of which is a
stack of thylakoids.
 Thylakoids are flattened sacs where the light-dependent reaction
takes place.
 Stroma- a fluid in a chloroplast, where the light-independent[dark]
reaction takes place.
 Reaction centers - are where light-reaction begins.

 Antenna complex- an array of protein & chlorophyll harvesting

molecules embedded in the thylakoid membrane[100-5000
pigments].
 Action spectrum-the photo synthetic effectiveness of each wave
length.