Optical Fiber Technology

at
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
UNIVERSITY,
16th Floor, Findeco House, Lusaka Campus,
Zambia.
Prepared by Nebart Phiri
April 2017
What is fiber optics?
• Fiber optics is sending signals from one location to another in the
form of modulated light guided through hair-thin fibers of glass or
plastic.
• These signals can be analog or digital and voice, data or video
information. Fiber can transport more information longer distances in
less time than any copper wire or wireless method.

It's powerful and very fast - offering more bandwidth than any other
form of communication!
Fiber Optics

• Optical Fiber: Thin strands of highly transparent glass or plastic that

guide light

• Core: The center of the fiber where the light is transmitted.

Cladding: The outside optical layer of the fiber that traps the light in the
core and guides it along - even through curves.
• Buffer coating or primary buffer coating: A hard plastic coating on the
outside of the fiber that protects the glass from moisture or physical
damage. The buffer is what one strips off the fiber for termination or
splicing.

• Plastic optical fiber (POF): is a large core (usually 1mm) multimode fiber
that can be used for short, low speed networks. POF is used in consumer
HiFi and as part of a  standard for car communication systems called
MOST
Mode
• Multimode Fiber: has a larger core (almost always 50 or 62.5 microns - a
micron is one one millionth of a meter) and is used with laser or LED
sources at wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nm for short distance, lower speed
data networks like LANs.

Singlemode Fiber: has a much smaller core, only about 8-9 microns, so it
only transmits one mode. Singlemode is used for telephony (long distance,
metropolitan and fiber to the home) and CATV with laser sources at 1310 to
1550 nm. It can go very long distances at very high speeds. 
FIBER OPTICS MODE
Step Index Multimode Fiber
• Step index multimode fiber was the first fiber design.
• It has a core of one type of  It has higher attenuation and is too slow
for many uses, due to the dispersion caused by the different path
lengths of the various modes travelling in the core.
• Step index fiber is not widely used - generally only POF and HCS/PCS
(plastic or hard clad silica, plastic cladding on a glass core) use a step
index design today.
Graded Index Multimode Fiber
• uses variations in the composition of the glass in the core to compensate for the
different path lengths of the modes.
• It offers hundreds of times more bandwidth than step index fiber - up to about 2
gigahertz.
• Two types are in use, 50/125 and 62.5/125, where the numbers represent the
core/cladding diameter in microns.
• has a range of materials in the core which are chosen to minimize modal
dispersion caused by different path lengths of different modes being transmitted
down the fiber.
• The core index profile is curved - a parabola to be exact - with lower index glass on
the outside of the core.
• The lower index glass transmits the higher angle light rays (called high order
modes) faster than the lower index glass near the center of the core.
Singlemode Fiber
• Since there is only one mode, there is no problem with modal
dispersion and the choice of core material can reduce chromatic
dispersion (see below) which increases the bandwidth to almost infinity
- but it's practically limited to about 100,000 gigahertz - that's still a lot!
• Singlemode fiber has a core diameter of 8-10 microns, specified as
"mode field diameter," the effective size of the core, and a cladding
diameter of 125 microns.
• Erbium-doped singlemode fibers are used in fiber amplifiers, devices
used in extremely long distance networks to regenerate signals.
• Fibers are optimized for bandwidth at wavelengths appropriate for
DWDM systems or to reverse chromatic dispersion.
Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of optical power. The attenuation of an
optical fiber is expressed by the attenuation coefficient which is
defined as the loss of the fiber per unit length, in dB/km.
Attenuation

• The attenuation of the optical fiber is a result of two factors, absorption

and scattering.
• The absorption is caused by the absorption of the light and conversion
to heat by molecules in the glass.
• Primary absorbers are residual OH+ and dopants used to modify the
refractive index of the glass.
• This absorption occurs at discrete wavelengths, determined by the
elements absorbing the light.
• The OH+ absorption is predominant, and occurs most strongly around
1000 nm, 1400 nm and above1600 nm.
Attenuation
• The largest cause of attenuation is scattering.
• Scattering occurs when light collides with individual atoms in the glass
and is anisotropic.
• Light that is scattered at angles outside the numerical aperture of the
fiber will be absorbed into the cladding or transmitted back toward
the source Scattering is also a function of wavelength, proportional to
the inverse fourth power of the wavelength of the light.
• Thus if you double the wavelength of the light, you reduce the
scattering losses by 2 to the 4th power or 16 times.
Fiber Optic Cable

• Cable: Cable provides protection to the fiber from stress during installation and from
the environment once it is installed. Cables may contain from only one to hundreds
of fibers inside. Cables come in three varieties: tight buffer with a thick plastic
coating on the fibers for protection, used mainly indoors, loose-tube, where fibers
with only a primary buffer coating are inside plastic tubes, and ribbon, where fibers
are made into ribbons to allow small cables with the largest numbers of fibers. 
• Jacket: The tough outer covering on the cable. Cables
installed inside buildings must meet fire codes by
using special jacketing materials.
• Armor: Discourages rodents from chewing through it.
Cable Types
• Simplex and zip cord

• These types are used mostly for patch cord and backplane applications, but
zipcord can also be used for desktop connections.
• Simplex cables are one fiber, tight-buffered (coated with a 900 micron buffer
over the primary buffer coating) with Kevlar (aramid fiber) strength members
and jacketed for indoor use
• Distribution cables

• Distribution cable is the most popular indoor cable, as it is small in size

and light in weight.
• They contain several tight-buffered fibers bundled under the same jacket
with Kevlar strength members and sometimes fiberglass rod
reinforcement to stiffen the cable and prevent kinking.
• These cables are small in size, and used for short, dry conduit runs, riser
and plenum applications.
• Breakout cables

• Breakout cable is a favorite where rugged cables are desirable or direct

termination without junction boxes, patch panels or other hardware is needed.
• They are made of several simplex cables bundled together insdie a common
jacket.
• This is a strong, rugged design, but is larger and more expensive than the
distribution cables.
• It is suitable for conduit runs, riser and plenum applications especially for
industrial applications where ruggedness is needed.
• Loose tube cables

• are the most widely used cables for outside plant trunks because it
offers the best protection for the fibers under high pulling tensions and
can be easily protected from moisture with water-blocking gel or tapes.
• These cables are composed of several fibers together inside a small
plastic tube, which are in turn wound around a central strength
member, surrounded by aramid strength members and jacketed,
providing a small, high fiber count cable.
• Aerial cable

• Aerial cables are for outside installation on poles.

• They can be lashed to a messenger or another cable (common in CATV)
or have metal or aramid strength members to make them self
supporting.
• The cable shown has a steel messenger for support. It must be
grounded properly.
• Aerial cable - optical power ground wire (OPGW)

• is a high voltage distribution cable with fiber in the center.

• The fiber is not affected by the electrical fields and the utility installing
it gets fibers for  grid management and communications. This cable is
usually installed on the top of high voltage towers but brought to
ground level for splicing or termination.
Choosing Cables
• Choosing a fiber optic cable for any given application requires
considering two issues, installation requirements and environmental
or long-term requirements.
• Installation requirements include where and how the cable will be
installed, such as pulled in conduit outdoors or placed in cable trays in
a building.
• Long term requirements need to consider moisture or water
exposure, temperature, tension (aerial cables), or other
environmental factors.
Termination and Splicing

• Connector: A non-permanent device for connecting two fibers in a non-permanent joint

or connect fibers to equipment. Connectors are expected to be disconnected
occasionally for testing or rerouting.
• Ferrule: A tube which holds a fiber for alignment, usually part of a connector

Splice: a permanent joint between two fibers

Mechanical Splice: A splice where the fibers are aligned created by mechanical means

Fusion Splice: A splice created by welding or fusing two fibers together

Fusion Splicer: An instrument that splices fibers by fusing or welding them, typically by
electrical arc.

Hardware: Terminations and Splices require hardware for protection and management:
patch panels, splice closures, etc.
patch panels, splice closures; fusion splicers
Fusion Splicers
Fiber Optic Terminations

• Different connectors and termination procedures are used for

singlemode and multimode connectors.
• Multimode fibers are relatively easy to terminate, so field termination
is generally done by installing connectors directly on tight buffered
fibers using the procedures outlined below.
• Connector and splice loss is caused by a number of factors.
• Loss is minimized when the two fiber cores are identical and perfectly
aligned the connectors or splices are properly finished and no dirt is
present.
• Only the light that is coupled into the receiving fiber's core will
propagate, so all the rest of the light becomes the connector or splice
loss.
• End gaps cause two problems, insertion loss and reflectance.
• The emerging cone of light from the connector will spill over the core
of the receiving fiber and be lost.
• In addition, the air gap in the joint between the fibers causes a
reflection when the light encounters the change n refractive index
from the glass fiber to the air in the gap.
• This reflection (called fresnel reflection) amounts to about 5% in
typical flat polished connectors, and means that no connector with an
air gap will have less than about 0.3 dB loss.
• This reflection is called to as reflectance or optical return loss, which
can be a problem in laser based systems.
• Connectors use a number of polishing techniques to create convex
fiber ends that ensure physical contact of the fiber ends to minimize
reflectance.
• On mechanical splices, it is possible to reduce back reflection by using
non-perpendicular cleaves, which cause back reflections to be
absorbed in the cladding of the fiber.
• The end of the fiber must be properly polished and clean to minimize
loss.
• A rough surface will scatter light and dirt can scatter and absorb light.
• Since the optical fiber is so small, typical airborne dirt can be a major
source of loss.
• Whenever connectors are not terminated, they should be covered with
dust caps provided by the manufacturer to protect the end of the ferrule
from dirt.
• One should never touch the end of the ferrule, since the oils on one's
skin causes the fiber to attract dirt.
• Before connection and testing, it is advisable to clean connectors with
lint-free wipes moistened with isopropyl alcohol or special dry fiber
cleaners.
• Two sources of loss caused by mismatched fibers are directional;
numerical aperture (NA) and core diameter differences inherent in
the fibers being joined.
• Differences in these two will create connections that have different
losses depending on the direction of light propagation.
• Light from a fiber with a larger NA will overfill the core of the
receiving fiber be more sensitive to angularity and end gap, so
transmission from a fiber of larger NA to one of smaller NA will be
higher loss than the reverse direction.
• Likewise, light from a larger core fiber will have high loss coupled to a
fiber of smaller diameter, while one can couple a small diameter fiber
to a large diameter fiber with minimal loss, since it is much less
sensitive to end gap or lateral offset.
Fiber Optic Connectors

• ST (an AT&T Trademark) is the one of the most popular connectors for
multimode networks, like most buildings and campuses. It has a
bayonet mount and a long cylindrical ferrule to hold the fiber.
• FC/PC has been one of the most popular singlemode connectors for
many years. It screws on firmly, but make sure you have the key
aligned in the slot properly before tightening. It's being replaced by
SCs and LCs.
• SC is a snap-in connector that is widely used in singlemode systems
for it's excellent performance and multimode systems because it was
the first connector chosen as the standard connector for TIA-568
(now any connector with a FOCIS standard is acceptable.)
• It's a snap-in connector that latches with a simple push-pull motion. It
is also available in a duplex configuration.
• LC uses a 1.25 mm ferrule, half the size of the ST. Otherwise, it's a
standard ceramic ferrule connector, easily terminated with any
adhesive.
• Good performance, highly favored for singlemode and the connector
of choice for multimode transceivers for gigabit speeds and above,
including multimode Ethernet and Fibre Channel.
Fiber Performance Specifications
•Attenuation: The reduction in optical power as it passes along a fiber, usually
expressed in decibels (dB). For fibers, we talk about attenuation coefficient or
attenuation per unit length, in dB/km. See optical loss

Bandwidth: The range of signal frequencies or bit rate within which a fiber optic
component, link or network will operate.

Decibels (dB): A unit of measurement of optical power which indicates relative

power. A -10 dB means a reduction in power by 10 times, -20 dB means another
10 times or 100 times overall, -30 means another 10 times or 1000 times overall
and so on.

dB: Optical power referenced an arbitrary zero level, used to measure loss
Fiber Performance Specifications --- cont
• dBm: Optical power referenced to 1 milliwatt, used to measure optical power from
transmitters or at receivers. See optical power.
Optical Loss: The amount of optical power lost as light is transmitted through fiber,
splices, couplers, etc, expressed in "dB."

Optical Power: is measured in "dBm", or decibels referenced to one miliwatt of power.

while loss is a relative reading, optical power is an absolute measurement, referenced to
standards. You measure absolute power to test transmitters or receivers and relative
power to test loss.

Scattering: The change of direction of light after striking small particles that causes the
majority of loss in optical fibers and is used to make measurements by an OTDR

Wavelength: A term for the color of light, usually expressed in nanometers (nm) or
microns (m). Fiber is mostly used in the infrared region where the light is invisible to the
human eye. Most fiber specifications (attenuation, dispersion) are dependent on
wavelength.
• Dispersion: Pulse spreading caused by modes in multimode fiber
(modal dispersion), the difference in speed of light of different
wavelengths (CD or chromatic dispersion in multimode or singlemode
fiber ) and polarization (PMD or polarization mode dispersion in
singlemode)
Tools
• Jacket Slitter or Stripper: A cutter for removing the heavy outside
jacket of cables

Fiber Stripper: A precise stripper used to remove the buffer coating of

the fiber itself for termination. There at three types in common use,
called by their trade names: "Miller Stripper", "No-Nik" and "Micro
Strip."
• Cleaver: A tool that precisely "breaks" the fiber to produce a flat end for
polishing or splicing.
• Scribe: A hard, sharp tool that scratches the fiber to allow cleaving.

Polishing Puck: for connectors that require polishing, the puck holds the
connector in proper alignment to the polishing film (the round metal disk in
the photo above.)

Polishing Film: Fine grit film used to polish the end of the connector ferrule
(the white and yellow films on the polishing plate above.)

Crimper: A tool that crimps the connector to the aramid fibers in the cable to
add mechanical strength.

Fusion Splicer: An instrument that welds two fibers together into a

permanent joint.
Test Equipment
• Optical Power Meter: An instrument that measures optical power from the
end of a fiber

Test Source: an instrument that uses a laser or LED to send an optical signal
into fiber for testing loss of the fiber

Optical Loss Test Set (OLTS): A measurement instrument that includes both
a meter and source used for measuring insertion loss of installed cable
plants or individual cables. ALso called light source and power meter (LSPM.)
• Reference Test Cables: short, single fiber cables with connectors on both
ends, used to test unknown cables. 
• Mating Adapter: also called splice bushing or couplers, allow two cables with
connectors to mate.

Fiber Tracer: An visible light source (LED or flashlight) that allows visual checking of
continuity and tracing for correct connections such as duplex connector polarity

Visual Fault Locator: A high-powered visible laser light source that allows
continuity testing, fiber tracing and location of faults near the end of the cable.

Inspection Microscope: used to inspect the end surface of a connector for faults
such as scratches, polish or dirt.

Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR): An instrument that uses

backscattered light to take a snapshot of an optical fiber which can be used to
measure fiber length, splice loss, fiber attenuation and for fault location in optical
fiber from only one end of the cable.
Power Meter; Optical Loss Test Set
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
(OTDR):
Why Use Optical Fiber
• The biggest advantage of optical fiber is the fact it is the most cost effective
means of transporting information.
• FIber can transport more information longer distances  in less time than any
other communications medium.
• The bandwidth and distance capability of fiber means that fewer cables are
needed, fewer repeaters, less power and less maintenance.
• Fiber is unaffected by the interference of electromagnetic radiation which
makes it possible to transmit information and data with less noise and less
error.
• Fiber is lighter than copper wires which makes it popular for aircraft and
automotive applications.
Fiber Optical Uses
• Telephone Networks
• CATV
• Premises Networks
• Centralized Fiber LANs and Passive Optical LANs
• CCTV often uses fiber for it's distance capability and security,
especially in large buildings like airports and metropolitan networks.
Transceiver
• A fiber optic transceiver used on each end of a link includes a
transmitter and receiver that convert electrical signals to optical
signals and vice versa for transmission over optical fiber.
• The transmitter consists of an electrical input and signal conditioning
circuitry to drive an optical source, a light-emitting diode or laser that
provides the electrical to optical conversion and alignment hardware for
coupling of the optical signal into an optical fiber for transmission.
• The receiver consists of a detector that connects to the optical fiber to
accept an optical signal, convert the optical signal that has been
transmitted through the optical fiber to an electrical signal and
conditioning circuitry that creates an electrical output compatible with
the communications system.
• Multimode fiber may be used for shorter and/or slower datalinks while
singlemode fiber is used for longer links.
LEDS AND VCSELs
• much lower power outputs than lasers and their larger, diverging light
output pattern makes them harder to couple into fibers, limiting them
to use with multimode fibers.
• LEDs have much less bandwidth than lasers and are limited to systems
operating up to about 250 MHz or around 200 Mb/s.
• Because of their fabrication methods, LEDs and VCSELs are cheap to
make.
• LEDs have a limited bandwidth
• LEDs have a very broad spectral output which causes them to suffer
chromatic dispersion in fiber
LEDS AND VCSELs
• LEDs are used for slower (<~100 Mb/s) multimode links
• vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSELs) are used for faster multimode links. 
• Some standard networks have options for using singlemode 1310nm lasers on
multimode fiber.
• There are currently four types of multimode fiber used for datalinks, designated
OM1-4.
• OM-1 is a fiber with larger core (62.5 microns) used primarily in legacy systems
with LEDs at 850 or 1300 nm wavelengths.
• Faster multimode links use OM-2, OM-3 or OM-4 fiber with a 50 micron core,
generally the faster fibers designated OM-3 or OM-4 which are optimized for 850
nm VCSELs.
LASERS
• Laser have smaller tighter light outputs and are easily coupled to singlemode
fibers, making them ideal for long distance high speed links.
• Lasers have very high bandwidth capability, most being useful to well over 10
GHz or 10 Gb/s.
• Lasers are more expensive because creating the laser cavity inside the device
is more difficult, the chip must be separated from the semiconductor wafer
and each end coated before the laser can even be tested to see if its good.
• all types of lasers are very fast
LASERS
• Singlemode systems use lasers at 1310 or ~1550nm.
• 1310nm lasers are used for shorter links.
• The longer wavelengths around 1550 nm are used for long links and those
using wavelength-division multiplexing.
• There are several specialized singlemode fibers which are optimized for
special applications.
• lasers have a narrow spectral output that suffers very little chromatic
dispersion.
• DFB lasers, which are used in long distance and DWDM systems, have the
narrowest spectral width which minimizes chromatic dispersion on the
longest links
• DFB lasers are also highly linear (that is the light output directly follows the
electrical input) so they can be used as sources in AM CATV systems.
Typical Fiber Optic Source Specifications
LIGHT PROPAGATION
Typical Fiber optic link/system
performance parameters
Fiber Optic Testing
• Testing is used to evaluate the performance of fiber optic
components, cable plants and systems.
• As the components like fiber, connectors, splices, LED or laser sources,
detectors and receivers are being developed, testing confirms their
performance specifications and helps understand how they will work
together.
• After fiber optic cables are installed, spliced and terminated, they
must be tested. For every fiber optic cable plant, you need to test for
continuity and polarity, end-to-end insertion loss and then
troubleshoot any problems.
• If it's a long outside plant cable with intermediate splices, you will
probably want to verify the individual splices with an OTDR test also,
since that's the only way to make sure that each splice is good.
Test Process and Procedure
Make sure you remember these things;
1. Have the right tools and test equipment for the job.

• Source and power meter, optical loss test set (OLTS) or test kit with proper equipment
adapters for the cable plant you are testing.
• Optical inspection microscope, 100-200X video scope recommended
• Reference test cables that match the cables to be tested and mating adapters, including
hybrids if needed
• Fiber Tracer or Visual Fault Locator
• Cleaning materials - dry cleaning kits or lint free cleaning wipes and pure alcohol
• Optional: OTDR with launch and/or receive cables for outside plant jobs and troubleshooting
2. Know how to use your test equipment
• Before you start, get together all your tools and make sure they are all
working properly and you and your installers know how to use them
3. Know the cabling  network you're testing
• Make sure you have cable layouts for every fiber you have to test and
have calculated a loss budget so you know what test results to expect.
• A note on using a fiber optic source: EYE SAFETY Fiber optic sources,
including test equipment, are generally too low in power to cause any
eye damage, but it's still advisable to check connectors with a power
meter before looking into it. Besides, most fiber optic sources are at
infrared wavelengths that are invisible to the eye, making them more
dangerous.
TEST TOOLS - Visual Fault Locator
• A higher power version of the fiber tracer called a visual fault locator (VFL)
uses a visible laser that can also find faults. The red laser light is powerful
enough for continuity checking or to trace fibers for several kilometers, identify
splices in splice trays and show breaks in fibers or high loss connectors.
• It's most important use is finding faults in short cables or near the connector
where OTDRs cannot find them.
• You can also use this gadget to visually verify and optimize mechanical splices
or prepolished-splice type fiber optic connectors.
• By visually minimizing the light lost you can get the lowest loss splice. In fact-
don't even think of doing one of those prepolished-splice type connectors
without one.
Optical Power - Power or Loss?
("Absolute" vs. "Relative" Measurements)
• Practically every measurement in fiber optics refers to optical power
measured in dB.
• The power output of a transmitter or the input to receiver are "absolute"
optical power measurements, that is, you measure the actual value of the
power.
• Loss is a "relative" power measurement, the difference between the power
coupled into a component like a cable, splice or a connector and the power
that is transmitted through it.
• This difference in power level before and after the component is what we
call optical loss and defines the performance of a cable, connector, splice,
etc
Measuring power
• Power in a fiber optic system is like voltage in an electrical circuit - it's what makes
things happen! It's important to have enough power, but not too much.
• Too little power and the receiver may not be able to distinguish the signal from
noise; too much power overloads the receiver and causes errors too.
• Measuring power requires only a power meter (most come with a screw-on
adapter that matches the connector being tested), a known good fiber optic cable
(of the right fiber size, as coupled power is a function of the size of the core of the
fiber) and a little help from the network electronics to turn on the transmitter.
• Remember when you measure power, the meter must be set to the proper range.
• To measure power, attach the meter to the cable attached to the source that has
the output you want to measure (see diagram to the right).
• That can be at the receiver to measure receiver power, or using a reference test
cable (tested and known to be good) that is attached to the transmitter to measure
output power.
OTDR Testing
• OTDRs are powerful test instruments for fiber optic cable plants, if one
understands how to properly set the instrument up for the test and
interpret the results.
• When used by a skillful operator, OTDRs can locate faults, measure cable
length and verify splice loss.
• Within limits, they can also measure the loss of a cable plant.
• About the only fiber optic parameters they don't measure is optical
power at the transmitter or receiver.
How OTDRs Work
• The source and meter duplicate the transmitter and receiver of the
fiber optic transmission link, so the measurement correlates well with
actual system loss.
• The OTDR, however, uses backscattered light of the fiber to imply loss.
• The OTDR works like RADAR, sending a high power laser light pulse
down the fiber and looking for return signals from backscattered light
in the fiber itself or reflected light from connector or splice interfaces.
• At any point in time, the light the OTDR sees is the light scattered
from the pulse passing through a region of the fiber.
• Only a small amount of light is scattered back toward the OTDR, but
with wider test pulses, sensitive receivers and signal averaging, it is
possible to make measurements over relatively long distances.
• Since it is possible to calibrate the speed of the pulse as it passes
down the fiber, the OTDR can measure time, calculate the pulse
position in the fiber and correlate what it sees in backscattered light
with an actual location in the fiber.
• Connectors and splices are called "events" in OTDR jargon.
• Both should show a loss, but connectors and mechanical splices will
also show a reflective peak so you can distinguish them from fusion
splices.
• Also, the height of that peak will indicate the amount of reflection at
the event, unless it is so large that it saturates the OTDR receiver.
• Then peak will have a flat top and tail on the far end, indicating the
receiver was overloaded.
• The width of the peak shows the distance resolution of the OTDR, or
how close it can detect events.
• OTDRs can also detect problems in the cable caused during
installation.
• If a fiber is broken, it will show up as the end of the fiber much shorter
than the cable or a high loss splice at the wrong place.
Network Design - Design Process

Link communications requirements

• Link route chosen, inspected, special requirements noted including inspections

and permits
• Specify communications equipment and component requirements
• Specify cable plant components
• Determine coordination with facilities, electrical and other personnel
• Documentation completed and ready for installation
• Write test plan
• Write restoration plans
Design Process - cont

Contractor package for the install

• Documentation, drawings, bills of materials, instructions

• Permits available for inspection
• Guidelines to inspect workmanship at every step, test plan
• Daily review of progress, test data
• Safety rules to be posted on the job site(s) and reviewed with all
supervisors and installation personnel
Design Process

Requirements for completion of cable plant installation

• Final inspection
• Review test data on cable plant
• Instructions to set up and test communications system
• Final update of documentation
• Update and complete restoration plan, store components and
documentation
• During the installation itself, a knowledgeable person
should be onsite to monitor the progress of
installation, inspect workmanship, review test data,
create daily progress reports and immediately notify
the proper management if something looks awry.
• If the project manager is not technically qualified,
having someone available who is technical is
important.
• That person should have the authority to stop work or
require fixes if major problems are found.
Cable Plant Link Loss Budget Analysis
• Loss budget analysis is the calculation and verification of a fiber optic
system's operating characteristics.
• It is used to estimate the loss of a cable plant being installed, determine if
the cable plant will work with any given transmission system and provide an
estimate for comparison to actual test results.
• A link loss budget encompasses items such as the length of the link, fiber
type, wavelengths, connectors and splices, and any other sources of loss in
the link.
• Attenuation and bandwidth are the key parameters for budget loss analysis,
but since we cannot test attenuation, we generally use limits for loss set by
the standards for the systems or networks we are going to use on the link.
• The designer should analyze link loss early in the design stage prior to
installing a fiber optic system to make certain the system will work over the
proposed cable plant.
• The idea of a loss budget is to ensure the network equipment will
work over the installed fiber optic link.
• One issue is what values should one should use for component losses
when making the calculations.
• The best way to illustrate calculating a loss budget is to show how it's
done for a typical cable plant, here a 2 km hybrid
multimode/singlemode link with 5 connections (2 connectors at each
end and 3 connections at patch panels in the link) and one splice in
the middle.
Fiber Optic Cable Plant Installation
• Fiber optic cable may be installed indoors or outdoors using several
different installation processes. 
• Outdoor cable may be direct buried, pulled or blown into conduit or
inner duct, or installed aerially between poles.
• Indoor cables can be installed in raceways, cable trays above ceilings
or under floors, placed in hangers, pulled into conduit or innerduct or
blown though special ducts with compressed gas.
• The actual installation process will depend on the nature of the
installation and the type of cable being used.
Fiber Optic Cable Plant Installation -- cont
After completion of cable plant installation
• Inspect the workmanship of all parts of the installation.
• This includes visual inspection of the work site for neat installation workmanship
and reviewing test data on cable plant.
• Appropriate personnel should set up and test the communications system that
will operate over the fiber optic cable plant to ensure it is proper for that system.
• Before the job is completed, it is important to update and complete
documentation and the restoration plan.
• Cable and component remainders should be stored along with the restoration
plan and documentation in case of future network outages requiring cable plant
restoration.
Application – DWDM Technology
• DWDM stands for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing.
• It is basically optical multiplex technique.
• This helps combine multiple discrete transport channels of different
wavelengths and transmit them on a single optic fibre.
• For example, if we multiplex 32 signals of STM-1 level, then optic fibre capacity
will be increased from 2.5Gbps to 80 Gbps.
• Information signals in the form of binary data are converted into corresponding
wavelengths of light.
• These are later multiplexed using coupler and multiplexer devices as shown.
• Optical isolator is used to minimise back reflection. This information is
amplified using EDFA before being transmitted over single optic fibre cable.
• As signal need to be travelled 50-100 km and in order to withstand path loss
amplification to the signal is a must.
• Optical circulator along with FBG is employed to add or to drop some
channels.
• WDM is used if we need to combine 1550nm signals with 1310nm
signal.
• At the receiver demultiplexing is carried out and 1310nm signal is
extracted from the combined signals.
• At the receiver DWDM demultiplexer is employed to seperate out all
os thr 1550nm signals.
DWDM DEMux
Optical amplifier (EDFA - erbium-doped fiber amplifier)

• In DWDM system, post amplifier is used at the transmitter to boost

the signal while pre-amplifier is used to boost the signals at the
receiver side.
• EDFA is used as in-line amplifier before signal gets completely
degraded.
• EDFA is mainly used to boost the signal in the 1530nm to 1570nm
spectrum region.
• With EDFA signal need not to be converted back to electrical form
before being regenerated.
• EDFA uses laser source of either 980 nm or 1480 nm wavelength and
amplification of about 30dB can be achieved.
Thank you for coming