CHAPTER 1

STIMULI AND
RESPONSES
 The Human Nervous System
1. The human nervous system is divided into:
a) The central nervous system (control centre) ; the
brain controls all activities of the body & the spinal
cord controls the involuntary actions like knee jerks.
b) The peripheral nervous system transmits impulses
from the sensory organs through the central nervous
system to the muscles or glands
2. Voluntary actions are actions we aware of and
involuntary actions are actions which carry on
automatically.
Human Nervous System
The Brain
Voluntary and Involuntary action
Involuntary action
Reflex arc when hand is touch hot object
Stimuli and Responses in Human

◦ Humans face constant changes in surroundings.

These changes are called stimuli.
◦ Examples of stimuli include light, sound and
chemical substances. Humans use their sensory
organs to detect stimuli.
◦ Humans have five sensory organs: eyes, ears,
nose, skin and tongue
 Eye

Eyelid

Pupil

Sclera

Iris

Front view of eye

 Sclera Choroid

Suspensory Retina
ligament
Cornea

Yellow spot

Pupil Blind spot

Aqueous
humour

Eye Lens
Optic nerve
Iris

Ciliary muscles
Vitreous humour

Structure of Human eye

Side view of eye
 The functions of the different parts
of the eye
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Sclera -White, tough and - Protect the eye
fibrous coat - Gives the eye fixed
shape
Choroid - Dark colour - Absorbs light to
- Has many blood prevent reflection of
capillaries light inside the eye
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Retina - Light-sensitive layer - Place on which
of the eye images are formed
- Contains
photoreceptors
that detect light
Yellow spot Shallow yellowish - The area that is the
depression in the most sensitive to light
retina directly - The area where
opposite the centre of images are normally
the lens focused
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Blind - Located immediately - The spot in the eye
spot over where the optic nerve
the optic nerve enters the eye
- Has no photoreceptors - Not sensitive to light
Cornea - Transparent layer at the - Allow light to enter the
front of the eye eye
- Curved shape - Directs light towards
the lens
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Conjunctiva - Thin transparent - Protects the
membrane covering the cornea
exposed part of the eye
Iris - Part of the choroid - Controls the size
layer which can be seen of the pupil thus
from the front of the eye controlling the
as a disc-shaped structure amount of light
- Consists of muscles entering the eye
- Coloured, for example,
brown or blue
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Pupil - A small opening in - Enables light to enter
the centre of the eye
the iris - Controls amount of
light entering the eye
Ciliary - Consists of the - Contracts and relaxes
muscles ciliary muscle to change the thickness
- Part of the choroid of the lens
layer
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Eye - A transparent, - Focuses light that
Lens elastic and enters the eye onto the
biconvex disc retina to form an image
- Focuses light from
near and distant objects
by changing its
thickness
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Vitreous - Transparent jelly- - Helps maintain the
humour like substance shape of the eyeball
- Fills the space - Helps focus images on
behind the lens the retina
Suspensory - Consists of fibres - Holds the lens in
ligaments attaching the lens to position
the ciliary body
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Aqueous - Watery, transparent - Helps focus images on
humour fluid the retina
- Fills the space - Helps maintain the shape
between cornea of the eyeball
and lens - Enables oxygen and
nutrients from the choroid
to diffuse to the lens,
cornea and conjunctiva
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Optic - Nerve connecting - Carries impulses from
nerve the photoreceptors the retina to the brain
in the retina to the
brain
 Eye
1. The eye is the sensory organ of sight that responds to the
light.
2. Sight mechanism:
a) Light rays from the object entering the eye through
the cornea, aqueous humour, pupil, eyepiece and
vitreous humour and focusing on the retina.
b) The photoreceptors that are trigged and nerve
impulses that are formed are sent through the optic
nerve to the brain.
The retina has two types of photoreceptors: rod
cells and cone cells:
1. The rod cell in the retina is sensitive to light of
different intensity, such as at night. It is not
sensitive to colour and only a black and white image
I produced.
2. The cone cell in the retina is sensitive to light of
high intensity to detect colour.
 How Human See
Light reflected from an
object enters the eye
Brain interprets the
through the pupil
image as upright

Lens bends the light Impulses formed and

rays and focuses them sent through the optic
onto the retina nerve to the brain

Inverted image
formed on the retina Photoreceptors
stimulated
 The Human Sight Mechanism
Aqueous
Cornea Pupil
humour

Vitreous
Eye lens
humour

Retina
Optic nerve
(Photoreceptor)

Brain
 Ear
1. The ear is the sensory organ for hearing.
2. Responds to sound stimuli.
 The Human Ear

Outer Middle Inner

- Pinna - eardrum -Cochlea

- ear canal - ossicles - semicircular
(filled with - oval window canals
air) - auditory nerve
- Eustachian tube.
(contain fluid)
(filled with air)
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Outer ear - Made of cartilage and - Collects and directs
(a) Pinna skin sound waves into the
ear canal
(b) Ear -A narrow passage - Directs sound
canal - Walls near the towards the ear drum
outside of the ear
covered with fine
hairs
-Leads to the ear drum
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Middle ear - A thin membrane - Vibrates when sound
(a) Ear waves reach it
drum
(b) Ossicles - Three small bones - Amplifies and
called the hammer- transmits vibrations of
bone, anvil-bone and the ear drum to the
stirrup-bone. membrane covering
the oval window
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
(c) Oval - A small opening - Transmits vibrations
window covered by a from middle ear to
membrane inner ear
(d) - A narrow tube - Balances air pressure
Eustachian - Connects the on both sides of ear
tube middle ear with the drum so that the ear
throat drum can vibrate freely
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Inner ear - Coiled structure - Changes sound
(a) Cochlea - Filled with fluid vibrations to nerve
- Inner wall contain impulses
receptors sensitive to
vibrations
(b) - Nerve fibres that - Transmits impulse
Auditory connect receptors in from receptors in the
nerve the cochlea to cochlea to the brain
the brain
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
(c) - Three semicircular - Involved in
Semicircular canals positioned at maintaining the
canals right angles to each body balance
other - Not involved in
- Contains sensory hearing
cells and fluid
Hearing Mechanism

1. The ear pinna receives and sends sound waves

through the auditory canal to the eardrum.
2. The vibration from the ear drum are amplified by the
ossicles and then sent to the cochlea through the oval
window.
3. The cochlea converts sound vibration to nerve
impulses and are transmitted through the auditory
nerve to the brain.
 The Hearing Mechanism

The pinna catches sound Impulses interpreted by the

waves and directs the brain as sound
sound waves to the ear

Nerve impulses carried by the

auditory nerve to the brain
The ear drum vibrates
when the sound waves
strike it

Vibrations of the membrane

The
of the oval window causes
membrane of
Vibrations amplified and the fluid in the cochlea to
the oval
transferred by the ossicles move in waves and
window
to the membrane of the stimulate receptors that
vibrates
oval window produce nerve impulses

Figure 4. How we hear

 Nose

1. The nose is the sensory organ for smell.

2. Cells sensitive to smell are found in the
epithelium located high in the nasal cavity.
3. Chemicals in the air dissolve in the mucus layers
that coat the sensory cell of smell (olfactory cell)
and then stimulate it to produce nerve impulses.
Nose Structure
 Chemicals in Brain interprets the
the air messages as a specific
smell

Air enters nasal Receptors

cavity through (olfactory nerve)
nostrils send messages to
the brain

Chemicals
dissolve in the Receptors
mucus layer stimulated by the
chemicals
The detection of Smell
 Tongue
1. The tongue is the sensory organ for taste.
2. Chemicals in food dissolve in saliva and are
absorbed into the taste buds through the pores and
stimulate the taste receptors in them to produce
nerve impulses.
3. There are five tastes: sweet, salty, sour , bitter and
umami
4. Tiny bumps found on the tongue called taste buds
contain the receptors that detect different tastes.
5. Different areas of the tongue detect different tastes.
6. The saliva in the mouth has two functions:
◦ Dissolve substances so that they can be detected by
the taste receptors.
◦ Make chewed food easier to swallow.
Umami
Chemicals in
food released Chemicals
by chewing dissolved by
saliva

Taste receptors
stimulated by
chemicals in saliva

Brain interprets
the messages as a Taste receptors send
specific taste messages to the
brain

Detected of Taste
 Skin
1. The skin has five receptors that are sensitive to
heat, cold, pressure, touch and pain stimuli
respectively.
2. The thinner the epidermis or the more receptors
found on the skin, the more sensitive is that part
of the skin.
 The Structure of Human Skin
Three layers:

Epidermis Dermis

Hypodermis
(fat layer)
Epidermis

- Outer layer of the skin divided into three layers.

- Outermost layer is made up of dead cells.
- Tough and water-resistant .
- It also protects the sensitive cells under it
- Prevents the entry of germs into the body.
Dermis

- Inner layer of skin.

- Blood vessels, glands and receptors are found
-The glands ~sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
- Receptors~ touch receptors, pain receptors,
heat receptors, cold receptors and
pressure receptors.

Hypodermis (fat layer)

- is a layer directly below the dermis and
serves to connect the skin to the fibrous tissue
of the bones and muscles.
 1. Cold receptors 2. Heat receptors
sensitive to heat.
sensitive to cold.
5. Pressure
receptors
- sensitive to
3. Pain
receptors pressure.
Receptors in the Skin - located the
- nearest to furthest from
the 4. Touch receptors the epidermis.
- stimulated
epidermis. - sensitive to slight
- nerves pressure when any object
endings. -found more abundantly presses hard
in certain parts against the skin.
(fingertips).
 Sensitivity of the Skin at Different
Parts of the Body

1. The skin on different parts of the body has different

sensitivity.
2. The skin is more sensitive ~ fingertips, neck and cheek.
3. These areas have more touch receptors or a thinner
epidermis.
4. Some areas of the body are less sensitive than others.
5. Example: the skin on the back, arms and legs have fewer
nerves endings.
6. The elbows, knees and soles of the feet are not very
sensitive because they have thicker epidermis.
Limitation of the Sense of Sight
1. The limitation of the sense of sight is the ability
limit the eye to see the object.
2. The optical illusion occurs when our brain cannot
interpret accurately what is actually seen by the eye.
3. The blind spot does not have any photoreceptor and
we cannot see an object if its image is formed on it.
Optical Illusion
Eye Defects
In normal vision, light is focused accurately on the
retina to form an image on the retina. This will produce
a clear and sharp image on the retina.
Defects of vision:
(a) short sightedness.
(b) long sightedness.
(c) astigmatism.
A short-sighted person
1. Can see nearby objects clearly but distant objects
appear blur due to the image of the object which
falls in front of the retina.
2. The eyeballs are too long and the eye lenses are too
thick. This is because the ciliary muscles are too
weak to make the eye lens thinner.
3. Can be corrected by wearing concave lenses.
 Vision Short sightedness Long sightedness
defect
causes Eyeball is too long Eyeball is too short or
or lens is too thick lens is too thin
Symptom Can see near objects Near objects appear
clearly but distant blur but can see
objects appear blur distant objects clearly
 Vision Short sightedness Long sightedness
defect
Method of Use a concave lens to Use a convex lens to
correction diverge (spread out) converge light rays
light rays just before (make them come closer
they enter the eyes so together) just before they
that image if formed enter the eyes so that
further inside and image is formed at a
exactly on the retina. shorter distance and
exactly on the retina.
 Short sightedness Long sightedness

Light focus in front of retina Light focus behind the retina

Short sightedness
Correction
Long sightedness
Correction
Astigmatism
1. Caused by irregular curvature of the cornea or the
lens.
2. The light rays from an object is split and focused at
different points in the eye.
3. Some light may be focused on the retina, some
light will be focused in front or behind the retina.
4. Causes blurred vision for both near and distant
objects
5. Can be corrected with cylindrical lenses
Limitation of Sight and Hearing
Limitation of Sight
Limitation of sight Devices
Cannot see through objects X-ray machine, ultrasound
that are not transparent scanning device

Cannot see objects that are Binoculars, telescope

very far away

Cannot see objects that are Magnifying glass,

very tiny microscope

Cannot see around corners Periscope

Ultrasound machine
Telescope
Microscope
X-ray machine
Limitation of Hearing

1. Defect of hearing occurs when the sense of

hearing of a person does not function perfectly.
2. Defects of hearing are usually caused by damage
to the ear due to
 Infection by microorganisms
 Injury
 Aging process
 Continual loud sounds
Damage to the ear and ways to correct them
Damage Ways to correct them
Ear canal clogged by Remove the foreign object
foreign object clogging the ear canal
Ruptured eardrum Repair the ruptured ear drum using
surgery
Damage ossicles Repair the damaged ossicles using
medicine or surgery
Damage cochlea Replace damaged cochlea with
cochlea implant
Auditory nerve No effective treatment yet
Device to correct the hearing

Stethoscope
Hearing aid
Microphone
Loud speaker
 The Response in Plants

1. The response of plants to stimuli is called tropism.

2. The tropic movements such as phototropism are
important to help the plants to obtain the basic needs
like light, water and minerals.
Stimuli and Responses in Plants
Responses of Plants to Stimuli

Plants respond by either positive tropism or negative

tropism.
Positive tropism- the growth of the part of the plant
towards the direction of the stimulus.
Negative tropism- the growth of the part of the plant
away from the direction of the stimulus.
Nastic movement – not dependent on the direction of the
stimulus.
 Response Characteristic
Phototropism The movement or growth of plants in
response to light
• Shoots growth towards light
• Roots grow away from light
Geotropism The movement or growth of plants in
response to gravity
• Roots grow downwards in the
direction of gravity
• Shoots grow in the opposite
direction of gravity
 Response Characteristic
Hydrotropism The movement or growth of plants
in response to water
• Roots grow downwards in the
direction of water
Thigmotropism • The movement of plants in
response to touch stimulus
• Example: bitter gourd have
tendrils that curl around objects
that touch them so that they can
grow toward the sunlight
Thigmotropism

◦ Response towards touch or contact with a solid object.

◦ The stems and tendrils of climbing plants grow and
twine around a support when they come into contact
with the support.
◦ Stems and tendrils- positive thigmotropism.
Use tendril

use twinning stem

Nastic Movement

The response of a plant part to a stimulus in which the

movement of the plant part is independent of the
direction of the stimulus.
Nastic movement takes place more quickly than a
tropism.
One type- seismonasty ~ Mimosa pudica and Venus
flytrap.
Leaves of Mimosa pudica close immediately when they
are touched. The leaves will open again after a while.
Thus, these leaves show seismonastic response.
Venus flytrap- closes and trap insects that land on it.
Photonastiy - nastic movement involved in growth.
Some flowers open in bright light and close in dim light
or vice versa.
 Visions in Humans and Animals
1. Stereoscopic vision is the vision whereby both the eye
located in front of the head.
2. The production of three-dimensional images enables
humans and predators to estimate distance accurately.
3. Monocular vision is the vision whereby both of the eye
are located at the side of the head.
4. The production of two-dimensional images makes the
preys difficult to estimate distance accurately.
5. However, the field of monocular vision is wider.
Visions in Humans and Animals
 Characteristics Monocular Vision Stereoscopic
Vision
Examples of Prey animals: Human and
animals rabbit, deer and rat predator animals:
owl, tiger
Size of the field of
At the side of the In front of the head
vision head
Size of the field of
Wide Narrow
vision
Overlap in fields of No overlap Has overlap
vision
Type of vision Two dimensional Three dimensional
image image
 Characteristics Monocular Vision Stereoscopic
Vision
Estimation of Unable to Able to accurately
distance accurately estimate estimate distances,
distances, size and size and depth of
depth of objects objects
Effect on animal Wide field of Ability to estimate
vision helps prey distance accurately
animals to detect helps predator
enemies animals to hunt
Sensory Organs Ensure the Survival
of Animals on Earth

Bats have poor eyesight but they have a

very sensitive sense of hearing
Grasshoppers have fine hairs all over their body
to detect air movements.
Leopards have very good stereoscopic vision to
help them hunt their prey.
The feelers on catfishes sense food
Chameleons can move their eyeballs
Independently to see two different
directions at the same time.
The earthworms’ body are covered with
chemoreceptors to taste and detect chemical
substances in the soil.