OZONE DEPLITION

 Ozone depletion describes two distinct but

related phenomena observed since the late
1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per
decade in the total volume of ozone in 
Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and
a much larger springtime decrease in
stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar
regions.
 In1974,Molina and Rowland (1974)
revealed a potential air pollution threat to this
protective ozone shield. They hypothesized
that chlorofluorocarbons (CF2CI2 and CFCI3
– often abbreviated as CFC), which are used
as propellants and refrigerants, react with
ozone. The frightening aspects of this series
of reactions are that the chlorine atom
removes ozone from system, and that the
chlorine atom is continually recycled to
convert more ozone to oxygen. It has been
estimated that a 5 percent reduction in ozone
could result in nearly a 10 percent increase in
skin cancer (ICAS, 1975).
 CFCs and other contributory substances are
referred to as ozone-depleting
substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer
prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths
(280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light)
from passing through the Earth's atmosphere,
observed and projected decreases in ozone
have generated worldwide concern leading to
adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans
the production of CFCs, halons, and other
ozone-depleting chemicals such as 
carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane..
GLOBAL WARMING
 Global warming refers to the current rise in the 
average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and
oceans and its projected continuation. In the last
100 years, Earth's average surface temperature
increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) with about two
thirds of the increase occurring over just the last
three decades. Warming of the climate system is
unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90%
certain most of it is caused by increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by
human activities such as deforestation and
burning fossil fuels. 
An increase in global temperature will cause 
sea levels to rise and will change the amount
and pattern of precipitation, and a probable
expansion of subtropical deserts. Warming is
expected to be strongest in the Arctic and
would be associated with continuing retreat of
glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely
effects of the warming include more frequent
occurrence of extreme weather events
including heat waves, droughts and heavy
rainfall events, species due to shifting
temperature regimes, and changes in crop
yields. Warming and related changes will vary
from region to region around the globe, with
projections being more robust in some areas
than others
KYOTO PROTOCOL
 Kyoto Protocol was an agreement or international
treaty to bring all countries together to reduce
global warming and for dealing the effects of
unavoidable increase in temperature after 150
years of industrialization. Kyoto Protocol was
developed with the collaboration of many
countries in December 1997 but come into power
in 16 February 2005. The reason for this duration
was the terms of agreement settled upon Kyoto
Protocol. The countries involved in this agreed to
reduce emission of greenhouse gases that
contribute to global warming. Industrialized
countries support Kyoto Protocol except U.S state
which release more and more greenhouse gas and
responsible for those more than 25 percent of
generated by humans worldwide.
There were two conditions for the Kyoto
Protocol to enter into force. The first
condition was that no fewer than 55
participants in the convention needed to
ratify the protocol. The second condition
was that countries who participated in
producing a leased 55% of the
total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990
needed to ratify the protocol as well.
AIR POLLUTION
METEOROLOGY
THE ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE

The atmosphere is somewhat like an engine.

It is continually expanding and compressing
gases, exchange heat, and generally raising
chaos. The driving energy for this unwieldy
machine comes from the sun. The difference
in the heat input between the equator and the
poles provides the initial overall circulation
of the earth’s atmosphere. The rotation of the
earth coupled with the different heat
conductivities of the oceans and land
produce weather.
HIGHS AND LOWS
Because air has mass, it also exerts
pressure on things under it. Like water,
which we intuitively understand to exert
greater pressures at greater depths, the
atmosphere exerts more pressure at the
surface than it does at higher elevations.
The highs and lows depicted on weather
maps are simply areas of greater and
lesser pressure. The elliptical lines shown
on more detailed weather maps are lines
of constant pressure, or isobars.
The wind flows from the higher pressure
areas to the lower pressure areas. On a
nonrotating planet, the wind direction
would be perpendicular to the isobars.
The resultant wind direction in the
northern hemisphere. The technical names
given to these systems are anticyclones
for highs and cyclones for lows.
Anticyclones are associated with good
weather. Cyclones are associated with
foul weather. Tornadoes and hurricanes
are the foulest of the cyclones.
TURBULENCE
MECHANICAL TURBULENCE

In its simplest terms, we may consider

turbulence to be the addition of random
fluctuations of wind velocity (that is,
speed and direction) to the overall average
wind velocity. These fluctuations are
caused, in part, by the fact that the
atmosphere is being sheared
THERMAL TURBULENCE

Heating of the ground surface causes

turbulence in the same fashion that heating
the bottom of a beaker full of water causes
turbulence. Likewise, if the earth’s surface is
heated strongly and in turn heats the air
above it, thermal turbulence will be
generated. The converse situation can arise
during clear nights, when the ground radiates
is heat away to the cold night sky. The cold
ground, in turn, cools the air above It,
causing a sinking density current.
STABILITY
The tendency of the atmosphere to resist or
enhance vertical motion is termed stability. It
is related to both wind speed and the change
of air temperature with height.
There are three stability categories. When the
atmosphere is classified as unstable,
mechanical turbulence is enhanced by the
thermal structure. A neutral atmosphere is
one in which the thermal structure inhibits
mechanical turbulence. The atmosphere is
said to be stable. Cyclones are associated
with unstable air. Anticyclones are
associated with stable air.
 
NEUTRAL STABILITY
In a neutral atmosphere, the two lapse rates
are equal. If a parcel of air is lifted through a
neutral layer, the temperature and pressure of
the parcel will be identical to the temperature
and pressure of the surrounding air at every
height and is always in equilibrium with the
environment. Thus, the parcel is not buoyant.
If the force producing the motion ceases, the
parcel will neither continue to rise nor begin
to sink, rather, the motion of a parcel will
also cease.
UNSTABLE ATMOSPHERE

If a parcel of air is lifted and continues to

rise after the lifting force disappears, the
atmosphere is unstable. In an unstable layer,
the lapse rate of a rising parcel is less than
the lapse rate of the environment. Though the
parcel cools as it rises, its temperature
remains warmer than the surrounding air
during its ascent through an unstable layer.
Because the parcel is warmer than the
environment, the parcel has positive
buoyancy and continues to rise on its own.
STABLE ATMOSPHERE
In a stable atmosphere, if you lift a parcel of air,
the temperature of the rising air will decrease fast
enough that its temperature will always be colder
than the temperature of the environment. Colder
air sinks. If the force pushing the air up suddenly
disappeared, the parcel would sink back down to
its original position where its temperature and
pressure would be in equilibrium with the
environment. Another way of stating that the
atmosphere or a layer in the atmosphere is stable
is to say that the lapse rate of the rising air is
greater than the lapse rate of the environment.
PLUME TYPES

The smoke trail or plume from a tall stack

located on the flat terrain has been found
to exhibit a characteristic shape that is
dependent on the stability of the
atmosphere.
HEAT ISLANDS

A heat island results from a mass of

material, either natural or anthropogenic,
that absorbs and reradiates heat at a
greater rate than the surrounding area.
Large industrial complexes and small to
large cities are examples of places that
would have a heat island.
The effect is superimposed on the
prevailing meteorological conditions. It is
nullified by strong winds.
LAND/SEA BREEZES

During the night, the land cools more

rapidly than the water. The relatively
cooler air over the land flows toward the
water.
During the morning the land heats faster
than water. The air over the land becomes
relatively warm and begins to rise. The
rising air is replaced by the air from over
the water body.
VALLEYS
Under stagnating anticyclone, the valley will set
up its own circulation. Warming of the valley
walls will cause the valley air to be warmed. It
will become more buoyant and flow up the valley.
At night the cooling process will cause the wind
to flow down the valley.
Valleys oriented in the north-south direction are
more susceptible to inversions than level terrain.
The valley walls protect the floor from radiative
heating by the sun. Yet, the walls and the floor are
free to radiate heat away to the cold night sky.