SPECULATION AND

DEDUCTION
PAST: MODAL + HAVE + V3
PRESENT: MODAL + V1 / TO BE + -ing
MUST vs COULDN’T/CAN’T
• SOMETHING THAT IS 90 – 100% TRUE / NOT TRUE

• Kate doesn't have a car. She must have rented it.

• She must be working really hard these days. She looks absolutely exhausted.
(a conclusion about a process)

• You couldn't have seen a coconut tree. Coconuts don't grow here.

• You can't be serious! (disbelief about the present)
MIGHT/MAY vs COULD (less common)
• SOMETHING THAT IS 40 – 60% TRUE / NOT TRUE

• There may/might not be enough space for all the quests. (a present

possibility)
• I’m afraid my grandparents might have got (gotten) lost in the woods. They
have left in the morning and haven’t called us so far.

• We say may not/might not in negatives, but not couldn't.

SHOULD vs SHOULDN’T
• EXPECTED ACTIONS (CRITISIZING)

• Where is Tom? They should have told him about the rescheduling the

appointment. (= We expect him to know about the change.)
• You shouldn’t have quitted your job when you were not sure if you were
going to find a new one

• Where are they? They must have come home by now. (X)

• Where are they? They should have come home by now! (O)
Speculation can also be expressed by using
the following adjectives and adverbs:
• to be bound to/be sure to (The collapse was bound to happen. = It
was expected.)
• to be likely/unlikely to (Your behaviour is likely to disappoint your
parents. = It will probably happen.)
• It's likely/unlikely that (It is unlikely that she will have a lasting
relationship with Dan. = Probably, it will not happen.)
• definitely/probably (We should definitely be more concerned about
the feedback. = I am sure of it.)