Lecture # 10

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Contents of the lecture
 Water resources
 Earth’s water supply & distribution
 Water quality parameters
 Sources & types of water pollutants
 Types of water pollution
 Water borne diseases
 Water pollution control measures

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Water Resources
 Sea water

 Surface water

 Ground water

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Sea water
 Seawater or salt water is water from sea or ocean. On
average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of
about 3.5% (35 g/L). This means that every kilogram
(roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has
approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average
density at the surface is 1.025 g/ml.

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 Surface Water
 Water naturally open to the atmosphere; water from lakes,
ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams, etc.
 Although the only natural input to any surface water
system is precipitation.

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Surface Water
 The total quantity of water in that system is also dependent
on factors like
 storage capacity in lakes,
 the permeability of the soil beneath,
 the runoff characteristics of the land in the nearby land,
 the timing of precipitation and local evaporation rates.
 All of these factors also affect the proportions of water
loss.

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Ground water
Groundwater is the water located beneath the earth's
surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock
formations. A body of permeable rock which can contain
or transmit groundwater is called aquifer
The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids
in rock become completely saturated with water is called
the water table

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The earth's water supply

If the world's water supply were only 26 gallons,

our usable supply of fresh water would be only
2.5 teaspoons!
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World’s water Supply
Only about 0.014% of the earth's total volume of water is
easily available to us as

Soil moisture
Atmospheric water vapor
Lakes, streams and rivers

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Interesting Fact!
 More than half of the world's water supply is contained
in just nine countries:

United States, Canada, Colombia, Brazil, the

Democratic Republic of Congo, Russia, India, China
and Indonesia
 Over 1.5 billion people do not have access to clean, safe
water.

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Water consumption
 We use water for drinking,
irrigation, industrial purposes
and energy production. Water
use
 agriculture and energy
production - 80%
 industry and public use - 20%

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Water Quality Parameters
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Water Quality Parameters
The following goals may be formulated for the examination
of water:

Determination of physical, chemical & biological

characteristics of water
Assessment of suitability of water for various purposes e.g,
drinking, industrial, irrigation etc.
Establishment of size of various treatment units.
Determination of amount of chemicals required for
purification and conditioning of water for industrial usage.

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Water Quality Parameters

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Color
Pure water is colorless. However color is contributed to
natural water by many sources.

Sources:
End products of organic matter degradation
Algal metabolism such as chlamydomnas excrete yellow
substances into the water.
Divalent ions of iron & manganese may convert to Fe(OH)3
and MnO2 as a result of oxidation in surface water.

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Color
 Color caused by suspended matter is called apparent color.
 Color caused by dissolved solids that remains after
removal of suspended solids is called true color.

Color Removal:
 Apparent color is removed by simple filtration, ultra
filtration or chemical precipitation methods.
 True color causing organic compounds require chlorine
demand.

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Color

Type of Color Indication

Red Shows the presence of blood & other TNT
complex
Yellow/green & other Discharge of industrial wastes without treatment
(e.g. from paint industry)
Soil colours (e.g. red) Seepage of rain water & other industrial flows in
wastewater
Black Presence of industrial wastes & existence of septic
conditions
Odour
Smell Problem

Rotten-Egg Odor,
Musty Odors,
Hydrogen sulfide, sulfate-reducing bacteria, algal by-
grassy, fishy,
products, bacteria
vegetable and
cucumber like odor

Oily Smell Gasoline or oil contamination, possibly nuisance bacteria

Organic decomposition - note natural gas has no odor, but
Methane Like Gas the natural gas delivered to your home
Smell has mercaptans (sulfur -compounds)
added that create a strong odor to help detect leaks.
Phenolic Smell Industrial or gasoline contamination
Chemical  Smell Organic chemicals, Industrial waste may present
Temperature
 The temperature of wastewater streams is very important
factor in the selection of treatment processes as it can
affect the efficiency of process

 Lower temperatures increase the viscosity of wastewater

which in turn decreases the dissolution of chemicals in
wastewater and thus increases the chemical requirements
and hence cost of the process

 Higher viscosities also decrease the settling of solids by

resisting the downstream motion of particles
Solids
Based on the chemical nature
Organic
– In domestic wastewater, solids are about 50 percent
organic.  This fraction is generally of animal or vegetable
matter, plant tissue or organisms, but may also include
synthetic organic compounds.  The principal organic
compounds present in domestic wastewater are proteins,
carbohydrates and fats. They subject to decay.
Inorganic
– Inorganic solids are substances that are inert and not
subject to decay. Inorganic solids are frequently called
mineral substances e.g. sulphates, chlorides, phosphates
and include sand, gravel and silt.
Solids
Based on the physical state
Suspended solids
– Suspended solids are those which are visible and in suspension in the
water.  They are the solids which can be removed from the wastewater
by physical or mechanical means, such as sedimentation or filtration.  
Settleable Solids
– Settleable solids are that portion of the suspended solids which are of
sufficient size and weight to settle in a given period of time, usually
one hour.
Colloidal Suspended Solids
– Colloidal suspended solids are solids that are not truly dissolved and
yet do not settle readily.  These are somewhat loosely defined as the
differences between the total suspended solids and the settleable solids.

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Solids
Based on the physical state
Dissolved Solids
– Dissolved solids are smaller in size than suspended and
colloidal solids.  The term means all of the solids which
pass through the filter paper.
 
Total Solids
– Total solids, as the term implies, includes all of the
solid constituents of a wastewater.  Total solids are the
total of the organic and inorganic solids or the total of
the suspended and dissolved solids. 

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Turbidity
 Turbidity is a measure of water clarity, how much the
material suspended in water decreases the passage of light
through the water and it affects its color.
 Suspended materials include soil particles (clay, silt, and
sand), algae, plankton, microbes, and other substances.
 These materials are typically in the size range of 0.004 mm
(clay) to 1.0 mm (sand).
 Higher turbidity increases water temperatures because
suspended particles absorb more heat. This, in turn, reduces
the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO)
 Drinking water standard is less than 5 NTU
 pH
 The indicator for acidity or alkalinity is known as the pH
value. A pH value of 7 means a substance is neutral. The
lower value indicates acidity, and a higher value is a sign
of alkalinity.
 The ideal pH for efficient wastewater treatment is 6.5 to
8
 DW has an avg. pH of 7.0 (neither alkaline nor acidic)
and sea water has an avg. pH of 8.3 (slightly alkaline)
Hardness
 As water moves through soil and rock, it dissolves very
small amounts of minerals and holds them in solution.
Calcium and magnesium dissolved in water are the two
most common minerals that make water "hard."
 Hard water requires more soap and synthetic detergents for
home laundry and washing, and contributes to scaling in
boilers and industrial equipment.
Water Hardness Scale
Milligrams Per Liter (mg/L) Classification
less than 17.1 Soft
17.1 - 60 Slightly Hard
60 - 120 Moderately Hard
120 - 180 Hard
over 180 Very Hard
Hardness
Hardness is classified into two types:

Temporary Hardness: It is due to the presence of

bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be easily
removed by boiling.

Permanent Hardness: This type of hardness can not be

removed by boiling. This is due to the presence of chlorides and
sulphates of calcium and magnesium. The hardness can be
removed by the addition of some agents.

Drinking water standard is Ca < 25 mg/L and Mg < 75 mg/L

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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 Amount of gaseous O2 present in water
 O2 enters water either from atmosphere or by
photosynthesis reaction of the plants present in water
 Fundamental to aquatic life
 DO is inversely proportional to temp: Max amount of O2
dissolved in water at 0◦C = 14.6 mg L-1
 Main factor contributing to changes in DO levels is the
build-up of organic wastes which consumes large O2
 The amount of DO is usually measured by oxygen probe
method.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of
DO needed by aerobic biological organisms in a body of
water to break down organic material present in a given
water sample at certain temperature over a specific time
period.
 High BOD indicates the potential of developing DO sag (a
dip in the amount of DO in water body)

 A low BOD indicates either clean water or the presence of

toxic or non-degradable pollutants
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD Level (ppm) Water Quality

1-2 Very good (not much
organic waste present)
3-5 Moderately clean
6-9 Somewhat polluted
10+ Very polluted

BOD of waste water is usually b/w 110-440 mg/l

and must be reduced to 20 mg/l before discharge.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)

 BOD is measured as the amount of O2 adsorbed by a

sample of sewage during a specified period (5 / 7 Days),
at a specified temperature (20 deg. C)

 The difference in DO b/w initial measurement and the 5th

day measurement represents the BOD.

 BOD is an empirical test in which water conditions such

as temperature, oxygen conc. Or type of bacteria play a
decisive role.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

 Measure of the amount of material that can be oxidized

(along with O2) in the presence of a strong chemical
oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7)

 The most common COD method is the wet chemistry

method. A known amount of oxidizing agent is added.
Then reaction takes place to form CO2 and H2O. The
remaining (unconsumed) amount of oxidant is determined
by titration. This involves a two hour digestion at high heat
under acidic conditions in which potassium dichromate
acts as the oxidant for any organic material present in a
water sample.
Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD)
Advantages:

Major advantage of the COD test is the short time required

for evaluation.

COD test is conducted in approximately 3 hours while BOD

is conducted in 5 days.

COD test is much more useful for estimating strength of

certain industrial wastes of both organic & inorganic which
contained toxic chemicals.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Disadvantages:

COD test does not differentiate b/w biological oxidizable &

biologically inert organic matter.

Some amino acids, ketones or saturated carboxylic acids,

benzene, pyridine etc. are not oxidized by dichromate.

Some oxygen is consumed by inorganic substances such as

nitrites, chlorides, sulphates, reduced metal ions, etc. So, test
is a poor measure of strength of organic wastes unless these
factors are considered.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
 Nitrogen and Phosphorus are important nutrients for
biological growth

 Nitrogen occurs as: organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate,

nitrite and dissolved N2 gas

 Phosphorus occurs as: organic phosphate and inorganic

orthophosphate or polyphosphates

 The various forms of nitrogen and phosphorus can all be

measured analytically.
Sulfates
 Almost all natural waters contain sulfate ions. Their
concentrations vary considerably according to the mineral
content of the earth in any given area
 Sources are rain water especially in areas of air pollution
and Release from degradation of proteins
 For human consumption the acceptable limit = 250 mg L-1
 Problems linked with sulfates: boiler troubles, odor
problems, corrosion of sewers
Sodium
 Sodium is a mineral that can be found in drinking water
supplies.
 The human body needs sodium in order to maintain blood
pressure, control fluid levels and for normal nerve and
muscle function.
 Sodium in drinking water is not a health concern for most
people but may be an issue for someone with severe
hypertension, congestive heart failure or on a sodium-
restricted diet
 Sodium concentrations above 200 mg/L, may alter the taste
of water.
Chlorides
Chlorides is present in all natural waters at greatly varying
concentrations.
When chlorides concentrations of 250 mg/L is present along
with sodium ions, a salty taste can be observed.
Chlorides can be removed by reverse osmosis and
distillation.
Sources:
Effluent from chemical industries
Irrigation drainage
Sea water
Human body

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Coliforms and Pathogens

 Coliforms are a broad class of bacteria found in our environment,

including the feces of man and other warm-blooded animals. The
presence of coliform bacteria in drinking water may indicate a
possible presence of harmful, disease-causing organisms.

 Drinking water must be free of disease-causing organisms called

pathogens. Pathogens can be viruses, protozoa or bacteria.
Waterborne pathogens cause diseases such as hepatitis, diarrhea, and
dysentery. 
Contaminant Secondary Noticeable Effects above the
MCL Secondary MCL
Aluminum 0.05 to colored water
0.2mg/L
Chloride 250 mg/L salty taste

Color 15 color visible tint

units
Copper 1.0 mg/L metallic taste; blue-green staining

Corrosivity Non- metallic taste; corroded pipes/ fixtures staining

corrosive
Fluoride 2.0 mg/L tooth discoloration

Foaming agents 0.5 mg/L frothy, cloudy; bitter taste; odor

Iron 0.3 mg/L rusty color; sediment; metallic taste; reddish or

orange staining
Manganese 0.05 mg/L black to brown color; black staining; bitter
metallic taste
Odor 3 TON "rotten-egg", musty or chemical smell
(threshold
odor
number)
pH 6.5 - 8.5 low pH: bitter metallic taste; corrosion
high pH: slippery feel; soda taste; deposits

Silver 0.1 mg/L skin discoloration; graying of the white part of

the eye
Sulfate 250 mg/L salty taste

Total Dissolved 500 mg/L hardness; deposits; colored water; staining;

Solids (TDS) salty taste

Zinc 5 mg/L metallic taste

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*mg/L is milligrams of substance per liter of water.
Pollution of water
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Water Pollution

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Where do Water pollutants come from?
 Point Sources – A single definable source of the pollution,
e.g. a factory, a sewage plant, etc. Point-source pollution is
usually monitored and regulated.

 Non-point sources – No single source, but a wide range of

sources, e.g. runoff from urban areas, or farmland. Non-
point sources are much more difficult to monitor and
control.

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Non-persistent (degradable) water
pollutants
 These compounds can be broken down by chemical
reactions or by natural bacteria into simple substances such
as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
 If the pollution load is high, this process can lead to low
oxygen levels.
 E.g. paper, leaves, leather, cardboard, some plastics,
clothes.

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Persistent (Non-degradable) water
pollutants
 This is the most rapidly growing type of pollution
 This includes substances that degrade very slowly or
cannot be broken down at all;
 They may remain in the aquatic environment for years or
longer periods of time.
 Some pesticides, industrial chemicals (like
hexachlorobenzene), radioactive materials and metals,
glass etc.

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Pollution of Water

1. Surface water pollution

2. Groundwater pollution
3. Microbiological pollution
4. Oxygen depletion pollution
5. Nutrients pollution
6. Suspended matter pollution
7. Chemical pollution
8. Thermal pollution
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Pollution of Water

1. Surface water pollution

It is the visible form of pollution and can

be seen on waters in lakes, streams,
rivers. E.g. plastic bottles, shopping
bags and trash from human
consumption

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Pollution of Water

2. Groundwater pollution

Effects drinking water and aquifers

below the soil caused by highly toxic
chemicals and pesticides from farming

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Pollution of Water

3. Microbiological pollution

Natural form of water pollution caused

by microorganisms. E.g. bacteria and
viruses cause serious diseases.

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Pollution of Water

4. Oxygen depletion pollution

Some microorganisms in water use up

the available oxygen, called as oxygen
depletion which results in lower
oxygen.

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Pollution of Water

5. Nutrients pollution

Found in waste water and

fertilizers. They can cause excess
vegetation in water such as algae
and weeds which use up oxygen
in water hurting marine life.

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Pollution of Water

6. Suspended matter pollution

It occurs when pollutants enter the

water and do not mix with water
molecules. These suspended matter
forms fine silt in water.

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Pollution of Water

7. Chemical pollution

There is a lot of chemical run off from

factories into the water bodies which
includes metals, solvents, pesticides
from industries. They add poison to
wildlife in water.

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Pollution of Water

8. Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in

the temperature of a natural body of
water caused by human influence.
Elevated water temperatures
decreases oxygen levels, which can
kill fish, and can alter food
chain composition, reduce species
biodiversity.

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Water borne diseases
Diseases caused by the ingestion of water contaminated with
pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites include:
cholera
typhoid
Dysentery
Other diarrheal diseases

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