Measurement and

Measurement Scale
Lecture 9

Dr. Keerti Jain

NIIT University, Neemrana
 Objectives

• To understand the concept of measurement and

various methods of measurement
• To understand the difference between various
scales.
 Learning Outcomes

• Understanding the measurement scales

 Measurement and Measurement
Scales
• Measurement is the foundation of any scientific
investigation
• Everything we do begins with the measurement of
whatever it is we want to study
“Measurement in research consist of assigning
numbers to empirical events, objects or properties,
or activities in compliance with a set of rules.”
 Measurement is a three part
process

• Selecting observable empirical events

• Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for
assigning numbers or symbols to represent aspects
of the event being measured.
• Applying the mapping rules to each observation of
that event.
 Example

When we use a personality test such as the PQ

(Personality Questionnaire)
To obtain a measure of Extraversion – ‘how outgoing
someone is’
We are measuring that personality characteristic by
assigning a number (a score on the test) to an object (a
person)
 Four Types of Measurement Scales

• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
• The scales are distinguished on the relationships assumed to
exist between objects having different scale values
• The four scale types are ordered in that all later scales have
all the properties of earlier scales—plus additional properties
 Nominal Scale
Gender is a nominal scale
Male = 1
Female = 2
• Not really a ‘scale’ because it does not scale objects
along any dimension
• It simply labels objects
 Religious Affiliation
Categorical data are measured on nominal scales
which merely assign labels to distinguish categories

Catholic = 1
Protestant= 2
Jewish =3
Muslim =4
Other =5
What about symptoms of depression
from a psychiatric assessment?

None =0
Mild =1
Moderate = 2
Severe =3
 Ordinal Scale

• Numbers are used to place objects in order

• But, there is no information regarding the

differences (intervals) between points on the scale
• Example: Rank, Roll No., Designation, etc.
 Interval Scale

• An interval scale is a scale on which equal intervals between objects, represent

equal differences

• The interval differences are meaningful

• But, we can’t defend ratio relationships

 Example: Fahrenheit Scale

• Interval relationships are meaningful

• A 10-degree difference has the same meaning
anywhere along the scale
• For example, the difference between 10 and 20
degrees is the same as between 80 and 90 degrees
• But, we can’t say that 80 degrees is twice as hot as 40
degrees
• There is no ‘true’ zero, only an ‘arbitrary’ zero
 Ratio Scale

• Have a true zero point

• Ratios are meaningful
• Physical scales of time, length and volume are ratio
scales
• We can say that 20 seconds is twice as long as 10
seconds
 It isn’t so straight-forward??
The underlying construct or variable being measured
defines the scale of measurement, not the numbers
themselves (Why?)
Statistical procedures use numbers without considering the
underlying constructs that are measured
Measurement is the foundation, but whether or not
statistics can be interpreted depends on research design
issues
 Variables and Constants

• The names imply their meaning in statistics

• Properties of objects that can take on different values

are referred to as variables

• A constant is a number that does not change its value

(is constant) in a given situation
Discrete and Continuous Variables

• Discrete variables have a relatively small set of possible

values

gender, marital status, religious affiliation

• Continuous variables can (theoretically) assume any value

between the lowest and highest points on the scale

time, distance, weight

Independent and Dependent Variables

• Independent variables:
manipulated by the experimenter
under the control of the experimenter
• Dependent variables:
not under the experimenter’s control
usually the outcome to be measured
• Typically, we are interested in measuring the effects of
independent variables on dependent variables
What are the independent and dependent variables?

• An experimenter measures blood pressure response

in male and female hypertensive subjects, randomly
assigned to two drug treatment conditions:
standard medication A, and improved medication B
 Attitude

An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given

matter
Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs:
The term hypothetical construct is used to describe a
variable that is not directly observable, but is
measurable by an indirect means such as verbal
expression or over behavior - attitudes are considered
to be such variables.
Three Components of an Attitude

• Affective: The feelings or

emotions toward an object
• Cognitive: Knowledge and beliefs
• Behavioral: Predisposition to
action, Intentions, Behavioral
expectations
 The Attitude Measuring Process

Ranking - Rank order preference

Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic

Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts

Choice - Selection of preferred alternative

 Ranking tasks require that the respondent rank
order a small number of objects in overall
performance on the basis of some characteristic
or stimulus.
 Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude
of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses.
The respondent’s position on a scale(s) is where he or
she would rate an object.
 Sorting

Sorting might present the respondent with several

concepts typed on cards and require that the
respondent arrange the cards into a number of piles or
otherwise classify the concepts.
 Choice

Choice between two or more alternatives is another

type of attitude measurement - it is assumed that the
chosen object is preferred over the other.
 Physiological Measures

 Physiological measures of attitudes provide a

means of measuring attitudes without verbally
questioning the respondent.
 For example, galvanic skin responses, measure
blood pressure etc.
 Simple Attitude Scaling
In its most basic form, attitude scaling requires that
an individual agree with a statement or respond to a
single question. This type of self-rating scale merely
classifies respondents into one of two categories.
Example

THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION

_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE
 Category Scales

• A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a

scale having only two response categories - it provides
more information.
• Questions working is an extremely important factor in
the usefulness of these scales.
 Example of Category Scale
How important were the following in your decision to visit San Diego
(check one for each item)
VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT

CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________

COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________
FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________
EDUCATIONAL/
HISTORICAL ASPECTS _________ ___________ ___________
FAMILIARITY WITH
AREA __________ ___________ ___________
Method of Summated Ratings: The
Likert Scale
• An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes.
Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking
how strongly they agree or disagree with statements.
• Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”,
“uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.
 Likert Scale for Measuring
Attitudes Toward Tennis
It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis
match than to play an easy one.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree
 Likert Scale for Measuring
Attitudes Toward Tennis
There is really no such thing as a tennis stroke that cannot
be mastered.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree
 Likert Scale for Measuring
Attitudes Toward Tennis
Playing tennis is a great way to exercise.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree
 Semantic Differential

• A series of seven-point or five-point bipolar rating

scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”,
anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.

• A weight is assigned to each position on the rating

scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3,
+2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
Example
 Semantic Differential Scales for
Measuring Attitudes Toward
Tennis
Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm

Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex

Passive___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

 Numerical Scales

• Numerical scales have numbers as response options,

rather than “semantic space’ or verbal descriptions, to
identify categories (response positions).
Example
 Stapel Scales

• Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective

as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is
difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.

• The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well

as the results, are very similar to those for a semantic
differential. However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to
conduct and administer.
Example
 A Stapel Scale for Measuring a
Store’s Image

Department
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
• Select a plus number for words that you think describe the
store accurately.
• The more accurately you think the work describes the store,
the larger the plus number you should choose.
• Select a minus number for words you think do not describe
the store accurately.
• The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the
large the minus number you should choose.
• Therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that
you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you
think are very inaccurate.
 Behavioral Differential

• The behavioral differential instrument has been developed for

measuring the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object
or category of objects.
• A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a
sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward
this object on a series of scales. For example:

A 25-year old woman sales representative

Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not
Ask this person for advice.
 Paired Comparisons

• In paired comparisons the respondents are presented with two

objects at a time and asked to pick the one they prefer.
• Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is not difficult if only a
few products are compared, but as the number of items increases, the
number of comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n -1)/2).
• If the number of comparisons is too great, respondents may fatigue
and no longer carefully discriminate among them.
• Divide 100 points among each of the following brands
according to your preference for the brand:

Brand A _________

Brand B _________

Brand C _________
 Graphic Rating Scales
A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum .

Graphic Rating Scale Stressing Pictorial Visual Communications

3 2 1
Very Very
Good Poor
 Monadic Rating Scale

A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept

Now that you’ve had your automobile for about 1 year, please tell us how
satisfied you are with its engine power and pickup.

Completely Very Fairly Well Somewhat Very

Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied
 A Comparative Rating Scale

A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by

comparing it with a benchmark

Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares
with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.

TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE

 An Unbalanced Scale

An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the scale

How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union?

Neither Satisfied Quite Very

Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied
 What is Multidimensional Scaling?

• If you are interested in how certain objects relate to each other

… and if you would like to present these relationships in the
form of a map then MDS is the technique you need” (Mr
Gawels, KUB)
 MDS is a family of models
structured by D-T-M
• (DATA) the empirical information on inter-relationships
between a set of “objects”/variables are given in a set of
dis/similarity data
• (TRANSFORMATION) which are then re-scaled
( according to permissible transformations for the data /
level of measurement) , in terms of
• (MODEL) the assumptions of the model chosen to
represent the data
Multidimensional
• Multidimensional
scaling  scaling (MDS) is a means
of visualizing the level of
similarity of individual
cases of a dataset. It refers
to a set of related
ordination techniques used
in information
visualization, in particular
to display the information
contained in a distance
matrix.
 References
• Balasubramanian , P., & Baladhandayutham, A. (2011).Research
methodology in library science. (pp. 164-170). New Delhi: Deep &
Deep Publications.
• Sehgal, R. L. (1998). Statistical techniques for librarians. (pp. 117-
130). New Delhi: Ess Ess Publications.
• Donald R Cooper, Pamela S Schindler, Business Research Methods,
Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Private Limited.
• G.C.Beri, Business Statistics, Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Private
Limited.
• J.K.Sharma, Fundamentals of Business Statistics, Vikas Publication.
• P.N.Arora, Sumeet Arora, S.Arora, Statistical Methods, S.Chand.