LECTURE SLIDE

PHY 205 THERMAL PHYSICS

By

Dr. JIBRIN ALHAJI YABAGI

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCE
IBRAHIM BADAMASI BABANGIDA UNIVERSITY, LAPAI.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Course outline

The foundation of classical thermodynamics including

 The zeroth law and definition of temperature
 The first law
 Work heat and internal energy
 Carnot cycle
 The second law
 Entropy and irreversibility process
 Thermodynamic potentials and the Maxwell relations.
Applications:
 Qualitative discussion of phase transitions,
 Third law of thermodynamics:

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Course outline cont.
Idea and real gases.
 Elementary kinetic theory of gases including
 Boltzman counting Maxwell-Boltzman law of distribution of
velocities
 Simple applications of the distribution law.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 INTRODUCTION

Temperature is hotness or coldness of a body or an

object.
Heat is a form of energy that transferred from one
point to the other due to change in temperature.

THERMOMETERS The operation of any

thermometer is based on the change in some
physical property with temperat d1t2yio\ure; this
physical property is called a thermometric property.
Examples of thermometric properties are the length
of a column of mercury, electrical voltage, and
electrical resistance.
PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Thermodynamics may be defined as follows :

 Thermodynamics is an axiomatic science which deals with

the relations among heat, work and properties of system
which are in equilibrium. It describes state and changes in
state of physical systems.
Or
 Thermodynamics is the science of the regularities governing
processes of energy conversion.
Or
 Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the interaction
between energy and material systems.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that is built
upon the fundamental laws that heat and work obey.
 Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of work,
heat, and energy on a system.
 Thermodynamics is only concerned with macroscopic
(large-scale) changes and observations.
 In thermodynamics the collection of objects on which
attention is being focused is called the system, while
everything else in the environment is called the
surroundings.
 Isolated, Closed and Open Systems
 A system is the portion of the physical world being
studied.
 The system plus surroundings comprise a universe.
 The boundary between a system and its surroundings is
the system wall.
 If heat cannot pass through the system wall, it is termed
an adiabatic wall, and the system is said to be
thermally isolated or thermally insulated.
 If heat can pass through the wall, it is termed a
diathermal wall.
 Two systems connected by a diathermal wall are said to
be in thermal contact.

8
 Isolated, Closed and Open Systems
 An isolated system cannot exchange mass or energy
with its surroundings.
 The wall of an isolated system must be adiabatic.
 A closed system can exchange energy, but not mass,
with its surroundings.
 The energy exchange may be mechanical (associated
with a volume change) or thermal (associated with heat
transfer through a diathermal wall).
 An open system can exchange both mass and energy
with its surroundings.
 Isolated, Closed and Open Systems

Isolated System Closed System Open System

Neither energy nor
Energy, but not Both energy and mass
mass can be
mass can be can be exchanged.
exchanged.
exchanged.
 Thermodynamic Variables
• Thermodynamic variables are the observable macroscopic
variables of a system, such as P, V and T.
• If the are used to describe an equilibrium state of the system, they
are known as state variables.
• Extensive variables depend on the size of the system; e.g. mass,
volume, entropy, magnetic moment.
• Intensive variables do not depend on size; e.g. pressure,
temperature, magnetic field.
• An extensive variable may be changed to an intensive variable,
known as a specific value, by dividing it by a suitable extensive
variable, such as mass, no.of kmoles, or no. of molecules.
• Example: the specific heat is normally (heat capacity)/(mass).

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Equilibrium States
• An equilibrium state is one in which the properties of the system do
not change with time.
• In many cases, an equilibrium state has intensive variables which are
uniform throughout the system.
• A non-equilibrium state may contain intensive variables which vary
in space and/or time.
• An equation of state is a functional relationship between the state
variables; e.g. if P,V and T are the state variables, then the equation
of state has the form f(P, V, T) =0.
• In 3-dimensional P-V-T space,
an equilibrium state is represented by a point,
and the equation of state is represented by a surface.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Processes 1
• A process refers to the change of a system from one equilibrium state to
another.
• The initial and final states of a process are its end-points.

• A quasistatic process is one that takes place so slowly that the system may be
considered as passing through a succession of equilibrium states.
• A quasistatic process may be represented by a path (or line) on the equation-of-
state surface.
• If it is non-quasistatic, only the end-points can be shown.
• A reversible process is one the direction can be reversed by an infinitessimal
change of variable.
• A reversible process is a quasistatic process in which no dissipative forces, such
as friction, are present.
• A reversible change must be quasistatic, but a quasistatic process need not be
reversible; e.g. if there is hysteresis.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law

 If warm and cool objects are placed in thermal contact, energy, known as
heat, flows from the warm to the cold object until thermal equilibrium is
established.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 Two systems, separately in thermal equilibrium with a third system,
are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 The property which the three systems have in common is known as
temperature θ.
 Thus the zeroth law may be expressed as follows:
if θ1 = θ2 and θ1 = θ3, then θ2 = θ3.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

Thermodynamics, basically entails four laws or axioms known as Zeroth,
First, Second and Third law of thermodynamics.
 The First law throws light on concept of internal energy.
 The Zeroth law deals with thermal equilibrium and establishes a
concept of temperature.
 The Second law indicates the limit of converting heat into work and
introduces the principle of increase of entropy.
 The Third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.
These laws are based on experimental observations and have no
mathematical proof. Like all physical laws, these laws are based on
logical reasoning.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Getting Started
 All of thermodynamics can be expressed in terms of
four quantities
 Temperature (T)
 Internal Energy (U)
 Entropy (S)
 Heat (Q)
 These quantities will be defined as we progress
through the lesson
 The Laws of Thermodynamics: Summary
Zeroth Law
The temperature θ is introduced via the concept of thermal equilibrium.
First Law
 Energy conservation in a closed system is used to define both the heat Q
transferred and the change of internal energy of the system ΔU.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The internal energy of a system changes from an initial value Ui to a final value of
Uf due to heat Q and work W:

Q is positive when the system gains heat and negative when it loses heat. W is
positive when work is done by the system and negative when work is done on the
system.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 THERMAL PROCESSES

 Adiabatic – no heat transferred

 Isothermal – constant temperature
 Isobaric – constant pressure
 Isochoric – constant volume

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

 Adiabatic Process
 An adiabatic process transfers no heat therefore Q = 0
ΔU = Q – W
 When a system expands adiabatically, W is positive (the
system does work) so ΔU is negative.
 When a system compresses adiabatically, W is negative
(work is done on the system) so ΔU is positive.
 Isothermal Process
 An isothermal process is a constant temperature process.
Any heat flow into or out of the system must be slow
enough to maintain thermal equilibrium
 For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
 Therefore, Q = W
 Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as work
(W)
 Isobaric Process
 An isobaric process is a constant pressure process. ΔU,
W, and Q are generally non-zero, but calculating the
work done by an ideal gas is straightforward
W = P·ΔV

The substance in the

chamber is expanding isobarically
because the pressure is held constant
by the external atmosphere and the
weight of the piston and the block.
 Isochoric Process
 An isochoric process is a constant volume process.
When the volume of a system doesn’t change, it
will do no work on its surroundings. W = 0
ΔU = Q
 Heating gas in a closed container is an isochoric

process
 Summary
 Here is a brief listing of a few kinds of processes, which we will encounter in thermodynamics:
 Isothermal process → the process takes place at constant temperature
(e.g. freezing of water to ice at –10C)
 Isobaric → constant pressure
(e.g. heating of water in open air→ under atmospheric pressure)
 Isochoric → constant volume
(e.g. heating of gas in a sealed metal container)
 Adiabatic process → dq is zero during the process (no heat is added/removed to/from the
system).
 Reversible process → the system is close to equilibrium at all times (and infinitesimal
alteration of the conditions can restore the universe (system + surrounding) to the original
state.
 Cyclic process → the final and initial state are the same. However, q and w need not be zero.
 A combination of the above are also possible: e.g. ‘reversible adiabatic process’.
PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session
Second Law
The entropy S of an isolated system is defined as a property of the system which
has a maximum at equilibrium; i.e.
ΔS ≥ 0, or S → Smax.
Third Law
The entropy S → 0 as T → 0.

PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session

Slide courtesy of NASA
 Heat Capacity
 The amount of heat required to raise a certain mass
of a material by a certain temperature is called heat
capacity
Q = mcxΔT
 The constant cx is called the specific heat of
substance x, (SI units of J/kg·K)
 Heat Capacity of Ideal Gas
 CV = heat capacity at constant volume
CV = 3/2 R
 CP = heat capacity at constant pressure
CP = 5/2 R
 For constant volume
Q = nCVΔT = ΔU

 The universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol·K

 You can’t break even (2nd Law)
 Think about what it means to not “break even”.
Every effort you put forth, no matter how efficient
you are, will have a tiny bit of waste.
 The 2nd Law can also be stated that heat flows
spontaneously from a hot object to a cold object
(spontaneously means without the assistance of external work)
Slide courtesy of NASA
 Concerning the 2nd Law
 The second law of thermodynamics introduces the
notion of entropy (S), a measure of system disorder
(messiness)
 U is the quantity of a system’s energy, S is the
quality of a system’s energy.
 Another C.P. Snow expression:
 not knowing the 2nd law of thermodynamics is the cultural equivalent
to never having read Shakespeare
 Implications of the 2nd Law
 Time marches on
 If you watch a movie, how do you know that you are
seeing events in the order they occurred?
 If I drop a raw egg on the floor, it becomes extremely
“disordered” (greater Entropy) – playing the movie in
reverse would show pieces coming together to form a
whole egg (decreasing Entropy) – highly unlikely!
PHY 205 Thermal Physics 2019/2020 session
 Direction of a Process
 The 2nd Law helps determine the preferred direction
of a process
 A reversible process is one which can change state
and then return to the original state
 This is an idealized condition – all real processes are
irreversible
 Heat Engine
 A device which transforms heat into work is called a
heat engine
 This happens in a cyclic process
 Heat engines require a hot reservoir to supply
energy (QH) and a cold reservoir to take in the
excess energy (QC)
 QH is defined as positive, QC is negative
 Cycles
 It is beyond the scope of this presentation, but here
would be a good place to elaborate on:
 Otto Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
 Carnot Cycle
 Avoid all irreversible processes while adhering to the 2nd Law
(isothermal and adiabatic only)
 The Carnot Cycle

Image from Keta - Wikipedia

 Carnot explained
 Curve A (1 → 2): Isothermal expansion at TH
 Work done by the gas
 Curve B (2 → 3): Adiabatic expansion
 Work done by the gas
 Curve C (3 → 4): Isothermal compression at TC
 Work done on the gas
 Curve D (4 → 1): Adiabatic compression
 Work done on the gas
 Area under PV curve
 The area under the PV curve represents the
quantity of work done in a cycle
 When the curve goes right to left, the work is
negative
 The area enclosed by the four curves represents the
net work done by the engine in one cycle
 Engine Efficiency
 The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is
e = 1 + QC/QH
 The “engine” statement of the 2nd Law:
 it is impossible for any system to have an efficiency of
100% (e = 1) [Kelvin’s statement]
 Another statement of the 2nd Law:
 It is impossible for any process to have as its sole result
the transfer of heat from a cooler object to a warmer
object [Clausius’s statement]
 Practical Uses
 Automobile engines, refrigerators, and air
conditioners all work on the principles laid out by
the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
 Ever wonder why you can’t cool your kitchen in the
hot summer by leaving the refrigerator door open?
 Feel the air coming off the back - you heat the air outside
to cool the air inside
 See, you can’t break even!
 You can’t get out (3rd Law)
 No system can reach absolute zero
 This is one reason we use the Kelvin temperature
scale. Not only is the internal energy proportional
to temperature, but you never have to worry about
dividing by zero in an equation!
 There is no formula associated with the 3rd Law
of Thermodynamics
 Implications of 3rd Law
 MIT researchers achieved 450 picokelvin in 2003
(less than ½ of one billionth!)
 Molecules near these temperatures have been
called the fifth state of matter: Bose-Einstein
Condensates
 Awesome things like super-fluidity and super-conductivity
happen at these temperatures
 Exciting frontier of research
 The Zeroth Law
 The First and Second Laws were well entrenched
when an additional Law was recognized (couldn’t
renumber the 1st and 2nd Laws)
 If objects A and B are each in thermal equilibrium
with object C, then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other
 Allows us to define temperature relative to an
established standard
 Temperature Standards
 See Heat versus Temperature slides for a discussion
of these two concepts, and the misconceptions
surrounding them
 Heat is energy transfer
 Temperature is proportional to internal energy
 Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temp scales
Q&A What is the difference between ‘heat engine’ and ‘work engine’?

 Actually both the engines we are going to describe here are usually known as heat engines.
 We are differentiating two types of engines to see which one produces work and which one
actually transfers heat.
 In the heat engine as the temperature of the cold body tends to zero Kelvin, more and more
work has to be done to transfer the heat from the cold body to the hot body.

‘Work engine’ ‘heat engine’

Like a steam engine Like a refrigerator

Heat reservoir Hot body

Source
Heat q Heat q

Cyclic engine Work (w) Cyclic engine Work (w)

Heat q’ Heat q’

Cold Reservoir Sin Cold Body

k The main objective here is
The main objective here to transfer heat from a
is to produce work cold body to a hot body