NATIONAL TRAINING OF

TRAINORS IN MUSIC AND

ARTS:
English Proficiency Enhancement
Training
Ma. Jhona B. Acuña, PhD.
BP International Hotel
Los Baños, Laguna
May 2, 2018
ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES
IN MUSIC AND ARTS
I. Reading and Writing in Academic Texts
• What is academic reading and writing?
• Purposes of academic reading
• Importance of teaching academic reading skills
• Non-academic vs. academic texts
• Language features of academic texts
• Structure of academic texts
• Categories of analysis
II. Language Focus in Reading Academic
Texts
• Verb tenses
• Fragments and run-ons
• Dangling modifiers
• Qualifiers
• Transitions/Signposts
• Passive Voice
• Rhetorical Patterns
Reading and Writing in Academic Texts
What are your concerns about reading
academic texts?
What is academic reading and writing?
• Academic reading is a specific category in reading
which is an act of performance.
• Readers debate, analyze, or critique what has been
read.
• Close or intensive reading is needed, remembering
the text accurately, and comparing text to other texts
is encourage.
• Reading and writing is an interconnected process
• Reading an academic text does not simply involve
finding information on the text itself but working with
the text where reader recreates the meaning of the
text, together with the author.

• ‘…it is not simply what you read or how much you

read but how you read that will crucially affect your
level of reading skill’ (Boddington & Clanchy 1999, p.
1).
• How you read will impact on your understanding of
source material and the way you incorporate these
sources into your own writing on a topic.

• You will be expected to read more and to read more

quickly, accurately, critically and selectively.
• Critical reading involves making judgments about the
value of what you are reading (Boddington & Clanchy
1999).
• Instead of simply consuming information you are
expected to become a producer of information.
• You need to carefully assess what you read while
constantly asking yourself whether the information you
are reading is useful for the particular assignment you
are working on.
• Know what information you want from a document
before you start reading it… and read (and think) critically
• To develop critical thinking and reading you need to
interrogate both the writer and the text. Use the
following questions to help you gain a critical perspective:

• What is this document about?

• Is it accurate? How do you know?
• Who wrote it? Is the writer an authority in this field?
• Is the writer trying to persuade you of a particular
position?
• Is this argument based on a broad or narrow view of the
issue?
More questions:
• What evidence is offered to support the argument?
• What hasn’t been included in the argument?
• What would a totally opposite point of view look like?
• Do you agree/disagree with the position
presented by the writer?
• How did you come to this view?
• What do other writers have to say about this topic?
• Does this text add anything ‘new’ to the topic?
• Is this document useful for your present research?
And more questions:

• What is the writer saying?

• How are they saying it?
• What question or problem is the writer addressing?
• Why do they say it this way?
• Are the claims based on good evidence?
• Who are they saying it to?
• What do I think about what they say?
• Are the claims specific? Can they be generalized?
• Why am I reading it?
• What am I looking for?
• What will I use the text for?
• Is this part of a wider debate?
• How does it compare with what other people say?
Purposes of academic reading

• Research for an essay, report or other written

assignment
• Preparation for a seminar or presentation
• Broadening of your subject knowledge
• Deciding on a research topic
• Preparing for an interview
Importance/benefits of teaching academic reading
skills
• Information comes from reputable sources
 Academic sources are written by experts that
passed peer review
• Learn how to form arguments
 Develop arguments using evidences and facts
to support one’s position
• Exposure to various viewpoints
 Understanding of how others’ viewpoints
differ from yours.
Non-academic vs. academic texts

• Academic texts are written by professionals attached

to a university where quality of material is assured.
• They are edited by the authors' peers and often take
years to publish.
• Their language is formal and will contain words and
terms typical to the field.
• Using academic texts in writing assignments
gives authority to the paper.
• The authors name will be present, same as their
credentials.
• There will be a list of references that indicate
where the author obtained the information s/he
is using in the article.
The main fora for publishing academic research
material are:
• Peer reviewed academic journals
• Conference papers
• Research reports
• Postgraduate dissertations & theses
• Books
• Non-Academic texts are written for the public.
• They are published quickly and can be written by anyone.
• Their language is informal, casual and may contain slang
resulting to being inaccurate, biased and out of date.
• There will be no reference list.
• As a general rule religious texts and newspapers are not
considered academic sources. Do not use Wikipedia for
an academic source. This website can be altered by
anyone and so any information found within its pages
cannot be considered credible or academic.
The following materials are usually sources of non-
academic material:
•Newspapers
•Magazines
•Internet news services 
•TV & radio programs
•DVDs
•Youtube videos
•Most websites
Language features of academic texts
Formal
• Academic texts should be factual, concise and
accurate. Choose words precisely and carefully so that
the reader can accurately understand the concepts
within the text.

• Academic texts are written with an academic

audience in mind and your writing style needs to
conform to the conventions of the field you are
studying.
Analytical
• the complexity of the subject matter is acknowledged
through critical analysis through asking questions,
examining, and evaluating evidence which add a new
perspective to a subject instead of just rewriting what
has already been written.
• being analytical is to compare and contrast, evaluate
and consider both sides of an issue such as explaining,
giving reasons, drawing conclusions, making
suggestions and recommendations and supporting
claims with evidence.
Objective
• Academic writing is based on research about facts and
not influenced by personal feelings or biases. When
presenting an argument to the reader, words such as
apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely and
unexpectedly can be used. Note that the attitude you
are expressing should not be based on personal
preferences but rather on the evidence that you are
presenting.
Explicit
• Academic writing is explicit which means that there
is a clear presentation of ideas in the paper with a
well-organized structure for the reader to follow.
One way to accomplish clarity and structure in your
text is through the use of signposts. Signposts are
words and phrases that you can use in your text in
order to guide the reader along. Signposting can be
divided into two different categories: major
signposting and linking words and phrases.
Subjective
Objective
Categories of analysis (Hermida, 2009)
• Reading purpose
•get ideas about activities, to compare, to analyze, to
examine…
• Context
• Understanding context helps readers understand the
background, environment, and circumstances in which the
author wrote the text.
• Author’s thesis
• Students identify main claims, and arguments
dealing with the issues they are interested in
such as different positions used by the author
and the arguments that holds these positions
and the counter-arguments
Deconstruction of assumptions
• Students need to examine the concepts not analyzed in the text by
reading in other texts or publications.
• Evaluation of author’s arguments
• Judge the strength or validity of the author’s arguments
• Know the importance of evaluating the argument’s effectiveness
in making its claims
• Considering the evidence the author offers to support the claim
• Ponder on counter-arguments and logical reasoning by the author
• Evaluate any consistencies of thought, and relevance of examples
and evidence
Consequences of author’s arguments
• Consider the non immediate consequences of
the arguments used by the author.
• Reflect about the implications and applications
of the author’s thesis
• Make connections to other texts, relate
arguments to other topics learned in class, and
relate the author’s arguments to their own
experience.
Structure of academic texts
The three-part essay structure

• The three-part essay structure is a basic structure that

consists of introduction, body and conclusion.

• The introduction and the conclusion should be shorter

than the body of the text.

• For shorter essays, one or two paragraphs for each of

these sections can be appropriate. For longer texts or
theses, they may be several pages long.
Introduction
• Introduce your topic
• Place your topic in a context
• Provide background information
• Point out the aim of the text
• Describe how you will fulfill the aim
• Provide a thesis statement or research question
• Suggest what your findings are
• Explain why your topic is interesting, necessary or important
• Give the reader a guide to the text
• Catch your reader’s interest
How to write an interesting and effective introduction
• Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness
of the problem you will address.
• Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her
first).
• Mention a common misperception that your thesis will
argue against.
• Give some background information necessary for
understanding the essay.
• In a research essay, the narrative may illustrate a
common real-world scenario.
• In a science paper, explain key scientific concepts
and refer to relevant literature. Lead up to your
own contribution or intervention.
• In a more technical paper, define a term that is
possibly unfamiliar to your audience but is central
to understanding the essay.
Body

• this is the main section of the text and it should also be the
longest. Depending on the length of the text, the body may
be divided into subsections wherein each is briefly
introduce. Conclusion may be needed to concluded each
section for longer works.
• most substantial part of the text where the research or
findings are presented, discussed and analyzed. Arguments
that support the thesis or answer a question is presented in
the body, however, the structure and contents of this main
part may differ depending on the discipline.
The IMRaD structure
• The sections of the IMRaD structure are Introduction, Methods, Results and
Discussion.
• Introduction
• Same as in three-part essay

• Method
• describe how the study was conducted
• Presentation material and research as well as previous research and
background material.
• Description and explanation of methods used and analysis of
results.
Results
• report of the research results.
• results are not discussed or analyzed in this section but some
may be explained to avoid misunderstandings.

Discussion
• The discussion is where the writer interpret, analyze and
discuss results as well as compare and contrast them to
previous research.
Language Focus in Reading Academic
Texts
 Verb Tenses

Present Simple Tense

The present simple tense is the basic tense of most

academic writing. Use this as your first choice unless
you have a good reason to use another tense.
Specifically, the present simple is used:
• To “frame” your paper. In your introduction, the
present simple tense describes what we already know
about the topic; in the conclusion, it says what we
now know about the topic and what further research
is still needed.
• To make general statements, conclusions, or interpretations
about previous research or data, focusing on what is known
now (The data suggest … The research shows …)

• To cite a previous study or finding without mentioning the

researcher in the sentence:

The musical proficiency of students requires critical

listening to sounds.
• To introduce evidence or support in the structure:
There is evidence that …

• To show strong agreement with a conclusion or theory

from a previous paper (Smith suggests that …), but
not specific findings or data (use the past simple)
Past Simple Tense
Past simple tense is used for two main functions in most
academic fields:
• To introduce other people’s research into your text when
you are describing a specific study, usually carried out by
named researcher. The research often provides an
example that supports a general statement or a finding in
your research. Although it is possible to use the past tense
to distance yourself from a study’s findings, this appears to
be rare, at least in scientific writing.
…customers obviously want to be treated at least as
well on fishing vessels as they are by other recreation
businesses. [General claim]

De Young (1987) found the quality of service to be

more important than gaining accolades in attracting
repeat customers. [Specific supporting evidence]
• To describe the methods and data of your completed research.
However, look at examples of the Methods and Results sections
in journals in your fields to check that this is good advice for you
to follow. In many fields, the passive voice is most usual in
methods sections, although the active voice may be possible.

We conducted a secondary data analysis …

Descriptional statistical tests and t-student test were used for
statistical analysis.
The control group of students took the course previously …
Present Perfect Tense
• The present perfect is mostly used for referring to previous
research in the field or to your own previous findings. Since
the present perfect is a present tense, it implies that the
result is still true and relevant today.

• The subject of active present perfect verbs is often general:

Researchers have found, Studies have suggested. The
present simple could also be used here, but the present
perfect focuses more on what has been done than on what
is known to be true now (present simple).
In the following example, there are two opposite findings, so
neither is the accepted state of knowledge:

Some studies have shown that girls have significantly

higher fears than boys after trauma (Pfefferbaum et al.,
1999; Pine & Cohen, 2002; Shaw, 2003). Other studies have
found no gender differences (Rahav & Ronen, 1994).
(Psychology)

A new topic can be introduced with this structure:

There have been several investigations into …

• The present perfect forms a connection between the past
(previous research) and the present (your study). So, you
say what has been found and then how you will contribute
to the field. This is also useful when you want to point out
a gap in the existing research.
More recently, advances have been made using
anthropology to study the evolution of visual art…
(citation) … [previous research]
However, a similar problem exists in the study of classical
music. [gap]
• The passive voice is common in the present perfect tense
to describe previous findings without referring directly to
the original paper:
• … has been studied; it has been observed that … You
should usually provide citations in parentheses or a
footnote. The passive voice allows you to move the
subject of your research into a place in the sentence
where it will have more focus.
You can also use the present perfect
• to tell the history of your idea (what has created
it?),
• describe the results of your research (we have
developed a new …), or
• to draw conclusions (this has led us to conclude
that …).
APA Style Guidelines on Verb Tense
• APA calls for consistency and accuracy in verb tense usage
(see APA 3.06). In other words, avoid unnecessary shifts in
verb tense within a paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs to
help ensure smooth expression.
• Use the past tense (e.g., researchers presented) or the
present perfect (e.g., researchers have presented) for the
literature review and the description of the procedure if
discussing past events.
• Use the past tense to describe the results (e.g., test
scores improved significantly).
• Use the present tense to discuss implications of the results
and present conclusions (e.g., the results of the
study show…).
• Per APA 3.18, refer to the work of another researcher in the
past.
• Patterson (2012) presented, found, stated, discovered…
• However, there can be a shift to the present tense if
the research findings still hold true:
King (2010) found that revising a document three
times improves the final grade.

Smith (2016) discovered that the

treatment is effective.
Verb Tense Guidelines When Referring to the
Document Itself
• To preview what is coming in the document or to explain
what is happening at that moment in the document, use
the present or future tense:
In this study, I will describe…
In this study, I describe…
In the next chapter, I will discuss…
In the next chapter, I discuss…
• To refer back to information already covered, such as
summaries of discussions that have already taken
place or conclusions to chapters/sections, use the
past tense:
Chapter 1 contained my original discussion of the
research questions.
In summary, in this section,
I presented information on…
Simple Past Versus the Present Perfect
The present perfect focuses more on an action that occurred
without focusing on the specific time it happened. Note that
the specific time is not given, just that the action has
occurred.
I have travelled to China.
The present perfect focuses more on the result of the
action.
He has completed the employee performance reviews.
• The present perfect is often used with signal words such
as since, already, just, until now, (not) yet, so far, ever,
lately, or recently.
I have already travelled to China.
He has recently completed the employee
performance reviews.
Researchers have used this method since it was
developed.
Fragments, Run-ons and Comma Splice
Fragment

A fragment is an incomplete sentence. Oftentimes,

fragments occur when dependent clauses are not
connected to an independent clause, but left to stand
alone.
What is a complete sentence? A complete sentence is not
merely a group of words with a capital letter at the beginning
and a period or question mark at the end. A complete
sentence has three components:
• a subject (the actor in the sentence)
• a predicate (the verb or action), and
• a complete thought (it can stand alone and make
sense—it’s independent).
Some sentences can be very short, with only two or
three words expressing a complete thought, like this:
John waited.
This sentence has a subject (John) and a verb (waited),
and it expresses a complete thought. We can
understand the idea completely with just those two
words, so again, it’s independent—an independent
clause.
But independent clauses (i.e., complete sentences) can be
expanded to contain a lot more information, like this:
• John waited for the bus all morning.
• John waited for the bus all morning in the rain last
Tuesday.
• Wishing he’d brought his umbrella, John waited for the
bus all morning in the rain last Tuesday.
• Wishing he’d brought his umbrella and dreaming of his
nice warm bed, John waited for the bus all morning in
the rain last Tuesday, determined to make it to class for
his test.
Sentence fragments
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence because
they lack either a subject or a verb, or both. The
fragments are dependent clauses—which may have a
subject and a verb but they don’t express a complete
thought. They’re called “dependent” because they can’t
stand on their own.
• Because his car was in the shop (…What did he
do?)
• After the rain stops (…What then?)
• When you finally take the test (…What will
happen?)
• Since you asked (…Will you get the answer?)
• If you want to go with me (…What should you
do?)
• First, you need to know that subordinating
conjunctions do three things:
• join two sentences together
• make one of the sentences dependent on the
other for a complete thought (make one a
dependent clause)
• indicate a logical relationship
Second, you need to recognize the subordinators when
you see them. 
• Cause / Effect: because, since, so that
• Comparison / Contrast: although, even though,
though, whereas, while
• Place & Manner: how, however, where, wherever
• Possibility / Conditions: if, whether, unless
• Relation: that, which, who
• Time: after, as, before, since, when, whenever,
while, until
Third, you need to know that the subordinator (and
the whole dependent clause) doesn’t have to be at
the beginning of the sentence. The dependent clause
and the independent clause can switch places, but the
whole clause moves as one big chunk. 

• Because his car was in the shop, John took the

bus.
• John took the bus because his car was in the
shop.
Finally, you need to know that every dependent clause
needs to be attached to an independent clause
(remember, the independent clause can stand on its own).

• John took the bus. (Independent clause. So far, all is

well!)
• Because his car was in the shop. (Dependent clause
all by itself. Uh oh! Fragment!)
• John took the bus because his car was in the shop.
Run-ons
These are also called fused sentences. You are making a run-
on when you put two complete sentences (a subject and its
predicate and another subject and its predicate) together in
one sentence without separating them properly. Here’s an
example of a run-on:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is
very garlicky.
You could use a semicolon:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus;
it is very garlicky.
• You could use a comma and a coordinating
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so):
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus,
for it is very garlicky. -OR- My favorite
Mediterranean spread is hummus, and it is very
garlicky.
You could use a subordinating conjunction
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus
because it is very garlicky. -OR- Because it is so
garlicky, my favorite Mediterranean spread is
hummus.
You could make it into two separate sentences with a
period in between:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus.
It is very garlicky.
• You could use an em-dash (a long dash) for
emphasis:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus—
it is very garlicky.
You CANNOT simply add a comma between the two
sentences, or you’ll end up with what’s called a “comma
splice.” Here’s an example of a comma splice:

• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, it is

very garlicky.

You can fix a comma splice the same way you fix a run-on—
either change the punctuation or add a conjunction.
Finding run-ons
• Turn your sentences into yes/no questions.
• Turn your sentences into tag questions (sentences
that end with a questioning phrase at the very end)
Look at the following sentence:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus.
If you turn it into a question that someone could
answer with a yes or no, it looks like this:
• Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus?
If you turn it into a tag question, it looks like this:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus,
isn’t it?
Look again at the original run-on sentence:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very
garlicky.
The yes/no question can only be made with each separate
thought, not the sentence as a whole:
• Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus? Is it
very garlicky?
But not:
• Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus is it very
garlicky?
The tag question can also only be made with each separate
thought, rather than the whole:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, isn’t it? It’s
very garlicky, isn’t it?
But never:
• My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very
garlicky, isn’t it?
Combining Clauses to Avoid Comma Splices, Run-ons, and Fragments Fawcett, S. (2007). Evergreen: A guide to writing (8th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company.

• A clause is defined as a word grouping that contains a

subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses:
 independent clauses, which convey complete meaning
and can stand alone as simple sentences, and 
dependent clauses, which do not express a complete
idea on their own and must be paired with another
clause.
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction
The article was published in a peer-reviewed journal, so it is
a credible source.
Coordinating
Independent Conjunction Independent
Clause , Clause
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
so
Use a semicolon
The article was published in a peer-reviewed journal; it is a
credible source.

Independent Clause ; Independent Clause

Use a semicolon, transition word, and comma
The article was published in a peer-reviewed journal;
therefore, it is a credible source.
Transition
Independent Clause ; , Independent Clause
Word
in addition
moreover
however
nevertheless
furthermore
Therefore
for example
• coordinating clauses are structured in these ways to avoid
creating run-on sentences and comma splices.

• A run-on sentence is a mistake that occurs when two

independent clauses are combined without using any
conjunctive words or punctuation marks.
• A comma splice mistake that incorrectly joins two
clauses with a comma only. To form a grammatically
correct sentence, a comma should be followed by a
coordinating conjunction or changed into a semi-
colon.
Use a subordinating conjunction after the independent clause
The chapter is dense because it is thorough.
Subordinating
Independent Clause Conjunction Dependent Clause
after
because
since
although
If
until
before
whereas
while
when
Start sentence with the subordinating conjunction and add a
comma after the dependent clause
Because it is thorough, the chapter is dense.
Subordinating
Conjunction Dependent Clause , Independent Clause
after
because
since
although
if …
 Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a word, phrase or clause that modifies

a word in the sentence or refers to the wrong word. A
modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a
concept. Dangling modifiers cause the sentence to lack
coherence.

• Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.

The following sentence has an incorrect usage:

• Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the

doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV
sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action
expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the
participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.
DANGLING PARTICIPLE PHRASE:
• Smoking my cigar, a fire engine came roaring
around the corner.

Revision 1: As I was smoking my cigar, a fire engine

came roaring around the corner.

Revision 2: Smoking my cigar, I saw a fire engine roaring

around the corner.
DANGLING GERUND PHRASE:

After drilling my tooth, my cavity stopped aching.

Revision 1: After the dentist drilled my tooth, my cavity

stopped aching.

Revision 2: After drilling my tooth, my dentist stopped

my cavity from aching.
DANGLING INFINITIVE PHRASE:

To become a physician, aptitude and hard work are

needed.

Revision: To become a physician, one needs to have

aptitude and to work hard.
DANGLING ELLIPTICAL CLAUSE:
When fishing, my hook is always baited.
Revision 1: When fishing, I always bait my hook.
Revision 2: When I am fishing, my hook is always baited.
NOTE: Some verbal phrases do not modify any single portion
of the main clause but rather the whole of the clause. These
are called absolute constructions and are not dangling
modifiers.
For example: Service on the subway having been halted, we
had to walk. The air being hot and humid, we went
swimming.
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the

subject of the main clause:
• Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was
needed.
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written
excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived
late. The possible revision might look like this:
 Having arrived late for practice, the team
captain needed a written excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the
captain) who did the action in the modifying
phrase (arrived late).
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete
introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that
clause:
• Without knowing his name, it was difficult to
introduce him.

Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it"
didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to
introduce him. The revision might look something like this:
 • Because Maria did not know his name, it was
difficult to introduce him.
The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it
does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is
not considered "dangling."
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
• To improve his results, the experiment was done
again.
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says
that the experiment was trying to improve its own
results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main
clause into one sentence. The revision might look
something like this:
• He improved his results by doing the experiment
again.
Correct the sentences below that have dangling modifiers.
1. To become a good photographer, the camera must be
used carefully.
2. Driving up the rock-strewn mountain, the tire went flat.
3. While taking a shower, Jerry pounded on my door.
4. Riding in a swiftly moving vehicle, the landscape becomes
blurred.
5. To play the guitar well, practice is necessary.
6. Crashing on the shore, I could hear the waves.
7. To become a movie star, talent and luck must come
into play.
8. While treading water, the fish swam in lazy circles.
9. Coming home late, the house was dark.
10.After releasing the report, new data were supplied
to the committee.
Parallel Structures
Sentence elements that are alike in function should also be alike in
construction.  These elements should be in the same grammatical
form so that they are parallel.
Here are some examples of parallel elements
These elements, on the other hand, are not parallel
• Used in a sentence, they create a jarring effect and produce writing
with unclear emphasis and meaning.  We call such an error "faulty
parallelism."
1 With elements joined by  coordinating conjunctions,
especially and, but, and or.
• Parallel words
     
Parallel Phrases
Parallel Clauses
• Correcting Faulty Parallelism
2. Use parallel structure with elements in lists or in
a series..
A series is a group of three or more elements in a
row.  The last element in the series is connected to
the others with one of these coordinating
conjunctions:  and, or, but (not), or yet (not).
Commas should be placed between each element in
the series and before the coordinating conjunction. 
3.  Use parallel structure with elements being compared. 
(X is more than / better than Y)
     When we compare things, we often use words such
as more, less, better, and worse. We connect the items
being compared with words like as and than.
4. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a linking or
a verb of being. Joining elements with linking verbs or verbs
of being suggests a completing of the first item by the
second one.  Often, in fact, an equality between the two is
being set up.
5. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a 
correlative conjunction.
    These are the major correlative conjunctions:
              either / or           neither / nor           both / and       
not only / but also
Qualifiers and intensifiers
Words or phrases that are added to another word to modify
its meaning:
• either by limiting it (He was somewhat busy) or
• by enhancing it (The dog was very cute)
Sometimes called as “hedging”, it clearly indicates whether
the claims are certain, likely, unlikely, or just false. But
excessive use of qualifiers can make claims sound unsure of
the facts and make your writing too informal.
 Words and phrases that indicate uncertainty:
• Appears
• Seems
• Suggests
• Indicates

Qualifiers express doubt; they leave your reader

wondering if you know what you’re talking about.
Constructions like it appears that and it seems likely
that diminish the strength of your claims. 
Absolute words and more qualified alternatives:
ABSOLUTE QUALIFIED
Will May, might, could
Forms of “be” (am, is, are, was, May be, might have been, may have been
were)
All Many, most, some, numerous, countless, a majority
Every (Same as “all”)
None/no Few, not many, a small number, hardly any, a minority
Always Often, frequently, commonly, for a long time, usually,
sometimes, repeatedly
Never Rarely, infrequently, sporadically, seldom
Certainly Probably, possibly
Impossible Unlikely, improbable, doubtful
• More examples of qualifiers
• Basically
• Essentially
• Generally
• Kind of
• Mostly
• Pretty
• Rather
• Slightly
• Somewhat
• Sort of
• Various
• Virtually
Sample sentences with qualifiers:
• Anna Karenina is a somewhat admirable character.
Better: Anna Karenina is a sympathetic character.
• December in Moscow is really cold.
Better: December in Moscow is freezing.
• The theme of community is very important in Russian
literature.
Better: The theme of community is central in Russian
literature.
• It proved to be very hard to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson.
Better: It proved to be difficult to overturn Plessy v.
Ferguson.
• In recent years the Electoral College has
become very controversial.
Better: In recent years the Electoral College has become
controversial.
• The House Ways and Means Committee is basically one of
the most powerful congressional committees.
Better: The House Ways and Means Committee is one of
the most powerful congressional committees.
Transitions
• establish logical connections between sentences,
paragraphs, and sections of papers and tell readers what to
do with the information presented to them whether single
words, quick phrases, or full sentences and they function
as signs that tell readers how to think about, organize, and
react to old and new ideas as they read through.
• provide the reader with directions on how to piece
together your ideas into a logically coherent argument.
• are words with particular meanings that cues reader to
think and react in a particular way.
Types of transitions

1. Transitions between sections

Particularly in longer works, it may be necessary to
include transitional paragraphs that summarize for the
reader the information just covered and specify the
relevance of this information to the discussion in the
following section.
2. Transitions between paragraphs
 If you have done a good job of arranging paragraphs so
that the content of one leads logically to the next, the
transition will highlight a relationship that already exists by
summarizing the previous paragraph and suggesting
something of the content of the paragraph that follows. A
transition between paragraphs can be a word or two
(however, for example, similarly), a phrase, or a sentence.
Transitions can be at the end of the first paragraph, at the
beginning of the second paragraph, or in both places.
3. Transitions within paragraphs

Transitions within paragraphs act as cues by helping

readers to anticipate what is coming before they read
it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single
words or short phrases.
• Transitional Expressions
LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION
Similarity also, in the same way, just as … so too, likewise, similarly
Exception/Contrast but, however, in spite of, on the one hand … on the other hand, nevertheless,
nonetheless, notwithstanding, in contrast, on the contrary, still, yet

Sequence/Order first, second, third, … next, then, finally

Time after, afterward, at last, before, currently, during, earlier, immediately, later,
meanwhile, now, recently, simultaneously, subsequently, then
Example for example, for instance, namely, specifically, to illustrate
Emphasis even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly
Place/Position above, adjacent, below, beyond, here, in front, in back, nearby, there
Cause and Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus
Additional Support or additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally important, further,
Evidence furthermore, in addition, moreover, then
Conclusion/Summary finally, in a word, in brief, briefly, in conclusion, in the end, in the final analysis,
on the whole, thus, to conclude, to summarize, in sum, to sum up, in summary
Signposts in academic texts
Signposting means using phrases and words to guide the
reader through the content of the essay/dissertation which
indicate what will happen, remind readers where they are
at key points in the text, and indicate where they are going
to head next.
Major signposting: introductions, conclusions and outlining
main arguments/ the direction of the argument in
paragraphs/opening phrases.
Linking words and short phrases: connecting words help
guide the reader through the argument by linking ideas,
sentences and paragraphs.
When should signposts be used?
Linking words and phrases
• To add more ideas: again, furthermore, in addition,
moreover
• To compare or contrast ideas: alternatively, contrastingly,
conversely, whereas 
• To prove something: evidently, for this reason, because,
inevitably 
• show exceptions: however, nevertheless, yet, in spite of 
To repeat or refer back to something: as has been
mentioned/noted…/As previously discussed 
• To show that you will include something later: this will
be discussed in detail later 
• To emphasize something: definitely, obviously,
inevitably, undeniably 
• To give an example: for instance, in this case, in
particular, notably 
• To show the order of things: previously, following this,
initially, subsequently, finally
Major Signposts
• Introductions
• This essay will [first]
outline/examine/address/argue/demonstrate/focus on …
and will [then]
ascertain/establish/clarify/show/judge/prove … Next, it
closely examines ... in relation to ... Finally, it focuses
on ... and how this affects ...
• To understand the role of …, this essay provides a
discussion of …
• This essay seeks to investigate/evaluate/illustrate/discuss
the impact of ... in relation to ...
• The aim of this study is to … / The purpose of this
essay is to … /This essay argues that …
• The major issue that needs to be addressed is
… /The main questions addressed in this paper are
…
• This essay critically examines …
• This essay is organized in the following way: …
• The essay is divided into…main parts: part one will
… part two …
Main Body of Essay/Report…
• Introducing a new idea
• One aspect which illustrates … can be identified
as …
• The current debate about ... identifies an
interesting viewpoint on ...
• First(ly), … / second(ly), … / finally, …
• The first/next/final section provides a general
discussion of …
Linking or developing a new idea
• Having established ..., this essay will now/next consider …
• Building on from the idea that ..., this section illustrates that ...
• To further understand the role of ... this section explores the
idea that ...
• Another line of thought on ... demonstrates that ...
• In addition to/As well as x, y must be/should be/needs to be
established … x is one/an important/the key issue that has to
be considered.
• Another/A second/ of equal importance is …
• This idea/theory had been extended/developed by….
Introducing a contrasting view

• However, another angle on this debate suggests that ...

• In contrast to evidence which presents the view that... an
alternative perspective illustrates that ...
• However, not all research shows that...
• Some evidence agrees that ...
• This conflicts/contrasts with/is contrary to the view held by
..., who argues that …
Summing up a paragraph

• The evidence highlights that …

• It is clear that …
• The strength of such an approach is that …
Conclusions
• In conclusion, … / To summarise, … / As has been shown …
• Clearly, this essay has shown that the main factors which
impact upon … are …
• From the above, it is clear that …
• Several conclusions emerge from this analysis …
• The evidence presented has shown that …
• This essay has focused on three factors affecting …
• It has been established that …
Passive Voice
A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an
action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or
whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical
subject of the sentence. 

form of “to be” + past participle = passive voice

• The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon’s fiery breath.

• When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways
to delay her remarriage.
Functions of the Passive Voice
• To emphasize an object.
100 votes are required to pass the bill.
• To de-emphasize an unknown subject/actor.
Over 120 different contaminants have been dumped
into the river.
• If readers don’t need to know who’s responsible for the
action.
  Baby Sophia was delivered at 3:30 a.m. yesterday.
When do I use passive voice?
The actor is unknown:
The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Upper Old Stone Age.
Glass is classified as a solid.
The handwashing practices of staff were observed by four members of the
nursing staff during rostered shifts.
[We don’t know who made them.] It allows writers to highlight the most
important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the
beginning of the sentence
You want to be vague about who is responsible
Mistakes were made. [Common in bureaucratic
writing!]
The actor is irrelevant
An experimental solar power plant will be built in the
Australian desert. [We are not interested in who is
building it.]

You are talking about a general truth

Rules are made to be broken. [By whomever,
whenever.]
You want to emphasize the person or thing acted on. For
example, it may be your main topic
Insulin was first discovered in 1921 by researchers at the
University of Toronto. It is still the only treatment
available for diabetes.
You are writing in a scientific genre that traditionally
relies on passive voice. Passive voice is often preferred
in lab reports and scientific research papers, most
notably in the Materials and Methods section:

The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This

solution was then titrated with hydrochloric acid.
More on passive sentences

One type of work group, the semi-autonomous work

group, is discussed in a section later in this chapter.

 It is obvious that it is the author who will be doing

the discussing.
 The group was designed to last for only the lifetime of a particular project.
It is irrelevant to the reader here who did the designing.

The handwashing practices of staff were observed by 4 members of the

nursing staff during rostered shifts. Handwashing, or failure to handwash,
following patient contact was recorded. Leaving the area without
handwashing was considered failure to wash.
The passive is used to avoid repeated reference to
the known doer of the action (ie. the observers).

The number of seeds found in ant nests were

counted.
The passive allows you to avoid using a personal
pronoun (...by us).
Checklist of Strategies
• Identify
• Look for the passive voice: “to be” + a past participle
(usually, but not always, ending in “-ed”)
• If you don’t see both components, move on.
• Does the sentence describe an action? If so, where is the
actor? Is he/she/it in the grammatical subject position (at
the front of the sentence) or in the object position (at the
end of the sentence, or missing entirely)?
• Does the sentence end with “by…”? Many passive
sentences include the actor at the end of the sentence
in a “by” phrase, like “The ball was hit by the player”
or “The shoe was chewed up by the dog.” “By” by
itself isn’t a conclusive sign of the passive voice, but it
can prompt you to take a closer look.
• Evaluate
• Is the doer/actor indicated? Should you indicate him/her/it?
• Does it really matter who’s responsible for the action?
• Would your reader ask you to clarify a sentence because of
an issue related to your use of the passive?
• Do you use a passive construction in your thesis statement?
• Do you use the passive as a crutch in summarizing a plot or
history, or in describing something?
• Do you want to emphasize the object?
• Revise
• If you decide that your sentence would be
clearer in the active voice, switch the sentence
around to make the subject and actor one. Put
the actor (the one doing the action of the
sentence) in front of the verb.
Rhetorical Patterns

Rhetorical patterns are ways of organizing information.

Rhetoric refers to the way people use language to
process information, following general structures and
purpose.
Argument and Persuasion
• Take a definite stance on an issue, but take a stance that is
reasonable and capable of being supported by data, statistics, and
examples. Don’t take an outlandish stance for its own sake.
• Avoid topics that are too obvious, such as abortion or gun
control.
• Consider and refute views that do not agree with your thesis.
When considering or refuting these views, use reason instead of
dismissing them. However, views that disagree with the thesis
should be integrated into the paper instead of stuck at the end.
• Avoid logical fallacies.
• In general, use rational appeals as opposed to emotional appeals.
Example
Because of injuries, neurological damage, and in-ring
deaths, the rules of professional boxing need to be
changed.
• a) Paragraph 1: List off a number of possible injuries and
discuss the frequency of injuries in boxing.
• b) Paragraph 2: Discuss the prevalence of neurological
damage in the sport and explain how life altering it can be
for a person.
• c) Paragraph 3: Explain why it is ridiculous that someone
may risk his/her life for the sake of making money and
entertaining people.
Cause and Effect
• Show why something happened, what the consequences
were, or what the consequences might be.
• Analyze either many causes with one effect or one cause
with many effects.
• Choose a subject narrow enough that a writer can
thoroughly examine it
• Include all relevant causes and effects need to be.
• Distinguish between the more important and relevant
causes.
• Portray all causes and effects accurately; assumptions are
not viable.
Example
Due to video game consoles and fast food restaurants being
accessible and affordable, child obesity has become a serious issue
in society.
a) Paragraph 1: List off all of the consoles available to children,
the draw of video games to children, and how many
consoles a house typically owns.
b) Paragraph 2: Explain why a child may consume so much fast
food, how many fast food restaurants are located in a
square mile on average, and the advent of dollar meals.
c) Paragraph 3: Combine the information from the first two
paragraphs to describe how the two factors have attributed to
child obesity and explain how this assertion is true using
Classification/Division

• Put main things, people, places, into categories based on

their similarities or analyze one thing, person, place and
divide it into its components.
• Make the purpose of classification clear and interesting.
A paper classifying the different areas to study in college
is not very interesting. A paper classifying the different
types of sexism in the classroom is interesting..
Include the rule or principle used to classify items into
groups. Clarify if each subject can fall into just one
group or more than one group.
• Mention all essential categories.
• Use examples, details, and data to help readers
distinguish between categories.
Example
There are three basic types of wind instruments:
brasswind, woodwind, and free reed.
a) Paragraph 1: Describe the size, shape, material,
sound and types of brasswind instruments.
b) Paragraph 2: Describe the size, shape, material,
sound and types of woodwind instruments.
c) Paragraph 3: Describe the size, shape, material,
sound and types of free reed instrument
Comparison and Contrast
• State a clear purpose regarding why the subjects are being
compared or contrasted at the beginning of the paper.
• Share enough features to make a comparison valuable. •
Choose a narrow enough thesis so that all major similarities
and differences can be covered.
• Organize the paragraphs so that the ideas are compared
and contrasted simultaneously by point in each paragraph or
fully describe one entity by point and compare and contrast
when both entities are described
Example
To make a decision about whether to expand business in
Japan or in Canada, a company needs to know the
economics and business practices of each culture.
a) Paragraph 1: Describe the economic situation in J
Japan or describe the economy in both Japan and Canada
b) Paragraph 2: Describe the business practices in both
Japan and Canada regarding proper manners, meeting
places, etc.
c) Paragraph 3: Compare how the two cultures are
similar and different.
Definition
• Explore a subject’s meaning fully. Differences within
the definition are fine if they exist within the
established boundaries.
• Drawn clear boundaries around the subject to avoid
confusion with other subjects.
• Use examples, details, and anecdotes to strengthen a
definition essay.
Example
A family is a system of people who support one another, make
sacrifices for the benefit of everyone in the family, and are
comfortable around one another.
a) Paragraph 1: Describe how family members support each
other and what the different types of support are given.
b) Paragraph 2: Explain how family members make sacrifices
for one another and how individual needs are often made
less important for the benefit of the family.
c) Paragraph 3: Describe how a person may act when they’re
around his/her family as opposed to when he/she is in
any other group of people.
Description
• Fully describe a subject. The dominant impression should
be obvious to the audience and should be closely tied to
the purpose of writing.
• Make the description either subjective (emphasizing
emotions) or objective (unbiased and unemotional).
• Keep a consistent point of view and organize the details
clearly (if describing a room, does the description move
consistently left wall to right wall or ceiling to floor?).
Vivid details should be used to support the dominant
impression but should be left out or condensed if
they are irrelevant to the dominant impression.
• Use concrete language that appeals to the senses.
Try to incorporate all five senses to evoke imagery
in the paper.
Example
Spam is a disgusting concept due to the amount of salt in
the meat, the gelatinous substance covering the meat, and
the incredibly long shelf life.
a) Paragraph 1: Give an impression of the overbearing salt
flavor by describing the taste and texture of the meat using
diction (word choice eliciting an appropriate connotation
for the point being made).
 b) Paragraph 2: Describe the texture of the
gelatinous preservative substance surrounding the
meat, the smell, the color, etc.
c) Paragraph 3: Make an assertion that meat
should need to be refrigerated and that it
shouldn’t be able to sit on a shelf for years at a time.
Process Analysis
• Define how a certain process is by analyzing it by
including the essential steps.
• Think about how much your audience already knows
before you decide where to begin describing the
process. Don't assume your readers have background
knowledge that they may not have.
• Provide enough definitions of terms and be specific.
• Use appropriate transitions between paragraphs to
distinguish the order and time of each step.
Example
Throwing the perfect party has three important steps:
preparing a proper party music playlist, cleaning the house
to assure guest comfort, and providing a vast assortment of
beverages.
a) Paragraph 1: Explain the attention to detail and the
various factors to consider that go into creating a playlist
for a party.
b) Paragraph 2: Describe the different tasks to
complete when cleaning the house. Be specific and
utilize time to describe how long each task takes
and how long the entire step takes.
c) Paragraph 3: Describe the process of deciding which
store to get the pop from based on location and
price, and distinguish which beverages are good for
which occasions.
Thesis/Example
• Exemplify a thesis statement with specific details,
anecdotes, facts, and data. The controlling idea in the thesis
statement at the end of the introduction paragraph
determines the specifics to follow.
• Use a ‘hook’ to get the readers attention in the
introduction.
• Provide support for the thesis in each paragraph.
• Utilize transitions for coherence among paragraphs.
• Be consistent in tense and point of view.
• Conclude without blatant repetition.
Example
Trees are important to the environment because they
provide oxygen, create shelter for many creatures, and are
aesthetically pleasing.
a) Paragraph 1: Use statistics to inform the reader how
much oxygen a tree produces annually and how that
affects the environment.
b) Body Paragraph 2: Describe how important trees are
to the ecosystem and list different animals that use trees as
shelter.
c) Body Paragraph 3: Describe, in depth and great
detail, how the presence of trees can influence how
aesthetically pleasing a landscape is.
 References
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Fawcett, S. (2007). Evergreen: A guide to writing (8th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company.
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