MODULE V

MECHANICAL STABILIZATION OR
COMPACTION

1
 Compaction
• Mechanical Stabilization of soil by expelling the air from soil voids and
by densifying it
• Objectives of compaction:
 Increases density
 Increases strength characteristics
 Increases load-bearing capacity
 Decreases undesirable settlement
 Increases stability of slopes and embankments
 Decreases permeability
 Reduces water seepage
 Reduces Swelling & Shrinkage
 Reduces frost damage

2
 FIELD COMPACTION METHODS
Surface Compaction Methods
• Tamping
• Roller compaction
→ Smooth-Wheel Rollers
→ Pneumatic-Tired Rollers
→ Sheep Foot Rollers
→ Grid Rollers
• Vibratory Compaction – Vibrator connected to drum of
smooth-wheel roller
• Impact or Dynamic Compaction or Heavy Tamping
3
 Deep Compaction Methods
•Impact or Dynamic Compaction or Heavy
Tamping
• Compaction Piles or Displacement Piles
• Vibroflotation
• Vibro-piles or Vibro-compaction Piles or Vibro-
displacement Piles
• Blasting Technique

4
1. Tampers
Hand operated tamper or rammer
→ consists of block of iron or stone
→ 3 to 5kg
→ 300mm fall drop
Mechanical rammer
→ operated by compressed air or gasoline power
→ 30 to 150kg, 1000kg in special cases
Uses
→ adjacent to existing structures or confined areas, e.g. Trenches,
behind bridge abutments
→ not used when large area is involved
→ used for all types of soil except for saturated clay

5
2. Rollers
Compaction by rollers depends on following factors:
• Contact Pressure
Contact pressure depends on the weight of the roller wheel and the
contact area. In case of pneumatic roller, the tyre inflation pressure
also determines the contact pressure in addition to wheel load. A
higher contact pressure increases the dry density and lowers the
optimum moisture content.
• Number of Roller Passes
Density of the soil increases with the number of passes of rollers but
after optimum number of passes, further increase in density is
insignificant for additional number of cases. For determination of
optimum number of passes for given type of roller and optimum
thickness of layer at a predetermined moisture content, a field trial
for compaction is necessary.

6
• Speed of Rolling
Speed of rolling has a very important bearing on the roller
output. The slower the speed of travel, the more vibrations at a
given point and lesser number of pass required to attain a
given density.
• Layer Thickness
The more the thickness of layer of earth subjected to field
compaction, the less the energy input per unit weight of soil
and hence, less is the compaction under each pass of the roller.
Suitable thickness of soil of each layer is necessary to achieve
uniform thickness. Layer thickness depends upon type of soil
involved and type of roller, its weight and contact pressure of
its drums. Normally, 200 - 300 mm layer thickness is optimum
in the field for achieving homogeneous compaction.

7
 Types of Rollers
(a) Smooth – wheel rollers (drum):-
• Consists of 3 wheels, two large wheels in rear
end and one small wheel in front.
• A tandem type smooth wheel roller consists
of only two drums, one in rear and one in
front.
• Operated by internal combustion engines.
• Useful for finishing after compaction of fills.
• For compacting granular subgrade highways.
• Not used for deep layers of soils.
• 100% coverage under the wheel.
• Can be used for all soil types except rocky
soils and saturated clays
• Compactive effort = Static weight

8
(b) Pneumatic or Rubber tired Rollers:
• Use compressed air for operation.
• 9 to 11 wheels are fixed on 2 axles.
• Complete gross mass of roller is 5 to 200Mg.
• However, the rollers with mass > 50Mg are rarely used.
• It compacts the soil primarily by kneading action.
• Used for cohesive and cohesionless soils
• Roller includes weight box or ballast box.
• Weight can be increased by filling ballast.
• Light weight rollers of mass up to 20Mg are effective for layer thickness up
to 15cm.
• Heavy rollers are for layers of thickness up to 30cm.
• 80% coverage under wheel.
• Compactive effort = Static weight and kneading 9
• (c) Sheep-foot Rollers:-
• Before inventing the rollers, it was usual practice to pass a flock of sheep on the
newly formed fill. The same principle is used in this method.
• Consists of a hollow drum with a large number of small projections (feet) which
penetrates to the soil during rolling.
• Lower portion of layer is compacted by this method.
• Continuous rising effect of the compaction is called walking out of the roller.
• Drums are mounted on a steel frame.
• Ideally suited for cohesive soils.
• Compacted to 15cm to 30cm thick layers depending on the length of projection
and weight of roller.
• 8% to 12 % coverage
10
• Compactive effort: static weight and kneading.
(d) Grid Rollers:-
• These are intermediate b/w smooth wheel
rollers and sheep foot rollers, with their rotating
• wheels made of a network of steel square hole.
• They provide less kneading action but high
contact pressure.
• More suitable for coarse-grained soils.

11
 3. Vibratory Compactors

• Vibrations are induced. Vibrator is mounded on a drum. Vibrators

are of two types
(a) Smooth wheel type:
• A separate motor drives an arrangement of eccentric weights to
create high frequency, low amplitude, up and down oscillations of
drum. These are suitable for compacting granular soils, with no
fines, in layers up to 1m thick.
(b) Pneumatic tired type:
• A separate vibrating unit is attached to the wheel axle. The ballast
box is suspended separately from the axle so that it does not
vibrate. These are suitable for compacting granular soils with
thickness 30cm.

12
• Vibrating drum on smooth-wheel roller
→ Vertical vibrator attached to smooth wheel rollers.
→ The best explanation of why roller vibration causes
densification of granular soils is that particle
rearrangement occurs due to cyclic deformation of
the soil produced by the oscillations of the roller.
→ Compactive effort: static weight and vibration.
→ Suitable for granular soils.
13
 4. Impact Compaction of Sand (Heavy
Tamping or Dynamic Compaction)
• This method involves the repeated lifting and dropping of a
weight at a location, to increase the density of soil beneath that
location.
• Usually, a tamping weight made of concrete, cast iron or steel
weighing about 80 to 120kN is lifted using a crane to a height of
10 to 15m and dropped to 8 to 12 times at the same location.
• This results in the densification of soil up to a depth of 4 to 20m
below the ground surface.
• The depression formed in the soil due to blows is filled with
extra soil.
• This process is repeated at spacing of 2 to 4m along a grid
pattern at the ground surface to increase the density of the
entire soil mass. 14
• Impact compaction increases typically the N value in
loose sands.
• Limitation: Significant ground vibrations are generated
during the impact and this will affect the stability of
adjacent structures. Minimum of 60m clearance from
the boundary of compaction zone is needed.
• The major variables involved in this process are: (i )
magnitude of weight, (ii) size of the weight, (iii) height
of free fall of the weight, (iv) number of drops per
location, (v) distribution of drop locations over the site,
(vi) non-homogenity of soil, (vii) strength and
permeability anisotropy of the soil and (viii) degree of
saturation of soil.
15
16
 Compaction or Displacement Piles in Sand
(or Sand Pile)
• When a metal pipe with a cone at its tip is driven into the ground, the
sand is displaced laterally increasing its density.
• Withdraw the pipe and during the withdrawal, fill the bore hole with
sand or gravel creating a pile of the back-filled material.
• These piles are also called displacement piles because the space of them
is created by laterally displacing the soil that existed there.
• Usually, pile diameter ranges from 0.4 to 0.6m and the densification
effect extends to about 3 to 4 times the radius of the pile from the pile
center.
• Compaction piles can normally be installed down to a depth of 20m in a
grid pattern at spacing of 2 to 3m.
• Beyond 20m depth, driving of pipes becomes difficult because of
development of high skin friction along the pipe wall.

17
 Vibroflotation
• It is defined as the vibrocompaction which is carried out with the help of a special
vibratory tool called the vibroflot.
• The vibroflot is of 3 to 5m long, 0.4m diameter, about 20kN in weight and it vibrates at
frequencies of 30 to 50Hz.
• The vibroflot cannot penetrate into the soil under the combined effect of self weight and
vibrations. Hence it is assisted by a jet of water at its lower tip.
• As it penetrates into loose sand, a cylindrical cavity is created by lateral displacement of
sand particles that rearrange themselves into a denser packing under the influence of
vibrations.
• This cylindrical cavity can be created up to a depth of 15 to 35m and the sand around the
cavity gets denser up to a lateral distance of 1 to 1.5m.
• The cavity is backfilled with sand or gravel when the vibroflot is withdrawn with its lower
water jets closed.
• To keep the hole open during withdrawal, water is circulated gently in the hole from the
two holes at the top of the vibroflot.
• The vibroflot is also used to compact the soil being backfilled. This method results in a
column of dense sand having a diameter of 2 to 3m to Increase the density of the entire
soil mass.
18
19
 Vibro-piles or Vibro-compaction Piles
• A vibratory hammer at the top of a casing is used to displace and densify the soil.
• Bottom of casing is connected with a cone which is closed during driving and can
be opened during withdrawal.
• During the withdrawal of casing, fill the bore hole with sand or gravel creating a
pile of the back-filled material.
• Usually suitable for densification up to depths of 15m beyond which penetration
of casing is usually difficult.

20
 Explosions in Sands
• If a small amount of dynamite or TNT is buried in a loose sand deposit and
the charge is detonated, the explosion causes stress waves outward from
the point of blast and travel through the soil mass.
• The loose sand grains rearrange themselves to dense state and a
depression formed at the ground surface.
• Repeated detonations (3 to 5 times) at the same point results in additional
densification and further settlement of the depression.
• If the layer of loose sand deposit has a thickness of H, then the charge is
placed at a depth of 2/3rd of H.
• Usually the diameter of the settled surface is of 5 to 10m.
• This technique is used for densification of very large areas of loose sand,
e.g. foundations of dams in remote regions because the method is
significantly less costly than all other methods.
• Typically 5 to 40N of dynamite charge is used for each blast and the grid
spacing varies b/w 4 to 8m.
21
• Bore holes are drilled to the depth where the charge has to be placed. After
placing the charge, the bore hole is filled back with soil.
• A set of charges in a grid pattern are detonated together. Maximum surface
settlements in the range of 150 to 800mm have been recorded at different sites.
• Limitations: Uniformity of densification achieved by this method is not very good
because some loose packets remain around the points of blasts. Since explosions
cause damage to adjacent structures, the structures should be far away from the
compaction zone.

22
 SUITABILITY OF VARIOUS COMPACTION
METHODS
• Cohesionlss soils only: Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for
compacting layers of small thickness in base courses. Vibratory
rollers, vibroflotation, blasting and compaction piles are effective
for compacting deposits of large thicknesses.
• Cohesive soils only: Sheep-foot rollers are suitable.
Precompression is also quite suitable.
• For both cohesionless and cohesive soils (except saturated clay):
 Tampers are effective for compacting soil in a confined space of
all types.
 Pneumatic tired rollers are also suitable for both soils.
 Dynamic compaction is very effective.

23
24
 FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

1. Water Content
2. Amount of Compaction
3. Method of Compaction
4. Type of Soil
5. Addition of Admixtures

25
1. Effect of Water Content

26
o With increase in water content, compacted density increases up to
a stage, beyond which compacted density decreases.
o The maximum density achieved is called Maximum Dry Density
(MDD) and the corresponding water content is called Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC).
o At lower water contents than OMC, soil particles are held by
electrical forces that prevent the development of diffused double
layer leading to low inter-particle repulsion.
o Increase in water results in expansion of double layer and reduction
in net attractive force between particles. Water replaces air in void
space
o Particles slide over each other easily increasing lubrication, helping
in dense packing.
o After OMC is reached, air voids remain constant. Further increase in
water, increases the void space, thereby decreasing dry density.

27
2. Effect of Amount of Compaction
o As discussed earlier, effect of increasing
compactive effort is to increase MDD and
reduce OMC (Evident from Standard &
Modified Proctor’s Tests).
o However, there is no linear relationship
between compactive effort and MDD.

28
3. Effect of Method of Compaction

29
The dry density achieved by the soil depends on the
following characteristics of compacting method.
o Weight of compacting equipment
o Type of compaction – impact, kneading, rolling,
static pressure
o Area of contact of compacting equipment with soil
o Time of exposure
o Each of these approaches will yield different
compactive effort. Further, suitability of a
particular method depends on type of soil.

30
 4. Effect of Soil Type and Gradation

• Type of soil has a great influence on its compaction characteristics.

• Normally, heavy clays, clays and silt offer higher resistance to compaction whereas sandy
soils and coarse grained or gravelly soils are amenable for easy compaction.
• The coarse-grained soils yield higher densities in comparison to clays.
• A well-graded soil can be compacted to higher density.
31
5. Effect of Addition of Admixtures
o Stabilizing agents are the admixtures added to
soil.
o The effect of adding these admixtures is to
stabilize the soil.
o In many cases they accelerate the process of
densification.

32
EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON ENGINEERING BEHAVIOUR
OF SOIL

o Density
o Shear strength
o Permeability
o Bearing Capacity
o Settlement
o Soil Structure
o Pore Pressure
o Stress Strain characteristics
o Swelling & Shrinkage
33
1. Influence on Density:
Effect of compaction is to reduce the voids by expelling
out air. This results in increasing the dry density of soil
mass.
2. Influence on Shear strength
In general, effect of compaction is to increase the number
of contacts resulting in increased shear strength,
especially in granular soils. In clays, shear strength
depends on dry density, moulding water content, soil
structure, method of compaction, strain level drainage
condition etc. Optimum (flocculated structure) will be
higher than those compacted wet of optimum
(dispersed structure).
34
3. Effect of compaction on permeability
o Increased dry density reduces the void space thereby reducing the
permeability.
o At same density, soil compacted dry of optimum is more
permeable.
o At same void ratio, soil with bigger particle size is more permeable.
o Increased compactive effort reduces permeability.
4. Influence on Bearing Capacity
o Increase in compaction increases the density and number of
contacts between soil particles.
o This results in increased f.
o Hence bearing capacity increases which is a function of density
and f.

35
5. Influence on Settlement
o Compaction increases density and decreases void
ratio.
o This results in reduced settlement.
o Both elastic settlement and consolidation
settlement are reduced.
o Soil compacted dry of optimum experiences greater
compression than that compacted wet of optimum
6. Influence on Compressibility
At low pressure, soil compacted wet of optimum
shows more compressibility than that on dry side.

36
7. Influence on Soil Structure
In fine grained soil
o On dry side of optimum, the structure is flocculated. The
particles repel and density is less.
o Addition of water increases lubrication and transforms the
structure in to dispersed structure.
In coarse grained soil, single grained structure is maintained.
In composite soil, behaviour depends on composition
8. Influence on Pore Pressure
o Clayey soil compacted dry of optimum develops less pore water
pressure than that compacted wet of optimum at the same
density at low strains.
o However, at higher strains the effect is the same in both the
cases.

37
9. Influence on Stress Strain Characteristics:
The strength and modulus of elasticity of soil on the dry
side of optimum will always be better than on the wet
side for the same density. Soil compacted dry of
optimum shows brittle failure and that compacted on
wet side experiences increased strain.
10. Influence on Swell Shrink aspect
The effect of compaction is to reduce the void space.
Hence the swelling and shrinkage are enormously
reduced. Further, soil compacted dry of optimum
exhibits greater swell and swell pressure than that
compacted on wet side because of random orientation
and deficiency in water.
38
 FIELD COMPACTION CONTROL
Measurement of Field Compaction
For cohesive soils, take chunk samples and
directly measure the density as the ratio of
mass to volume (water displacement method).
For medium and cohesionless soils most
common methods are Proctor Needle
Method, Sand Cone method, Rubber Balloon
Method and Nuclear Method.

39
(a) Proctor Needle Method

40
o Used for rapid determination of water content of
soil in field.
o Proctor’s needle consists of a point, attached to
graduated needle shank and spring loaded plunger.
o Varying cross sections of needle points are
available.
o The penetration force is read on stem at top.
o To use the needle in field, Calibration in done on
the specific soil in lab and calibration curve is
prepared and the curve is used in the field to
determine placement water content.

41
(b) Sand Cone Method

42
• The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a
metal cone attached at its top.
• The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand.
• In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the
soil has been compacted.
• The weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole and the
moisture content of the excavated soil are determined.
• After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sandfilled jar
attached to it is inverted and placed over the hole.
• Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the hole and the
cone.

43
 (c) Rubber Balloon Method
• The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar
to that for the sand cone method, except a rubber
balloon is used to determine the volume of the hole.
• For this method, water from a calibrated vessel is
forced into a rubber balloon by air pressure, in to a
hole where a soil sample was taken.
• The amount of water used equals the sample’s in-place
volume. Disadvantages to using this method are that
the balloon can break or the water can freeze in colder
temperatures.

44
45
 (d) Nuclear Density
• Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly accurate way
of determining density and moisture content.
• The meter uses a radioactive isotope source (Cesium137) at
the soil surface (back scatter) or from a probe placed into the
soil (direct transmission).
• The isotope source gives off photons (usually Gamma rays)
which radiate back to the mater's detectors on the bottom of
the unit.
• Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and the
readings reflect overall density.
• Water content can also be read, all within a few minutes.

46