PHT 232

Physical chemistry I Practice

Presented by
NDIP RITA AYUK
Lecturer @SMUHI Bulu
 Physical Chemistry

• Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry

concerned with interactions and all macroscopic
or microscopic phenomena in chemical systems.

• It deals with principles of physics underlying all

chemical reactions, and practices such as
motion thermodynamics, analytical
and/chemical equilibra.
 OUTLINE

• PU1: Acid-base reactions-pH determinations and

preparation of buffers
 MOLARITY
•Molarity (M) = moles of solute
liters of
solution
• Moles of solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution

Example:
0.23 M NaCl solution = 0.23 moles of NaCl
dissolved in 1 L of solution (water)
•M is read as “molar” when next to a
number
• 4 M HCl = 4 molar hydrochloric acid
• Keep in mind that the liters of solution takes into account
the volume of the solute AND the volume of the solvent
What is the molarity of a solution that contains
0.65 mol of CuCl2 in 500 mL of water?
Solution

500 mL≡
 Preparing Molar Solutions

How do you make a solution with a specific

molarity?
1. Convert moles of solute to grams and measure the amount
out.
2. Add solvent so that the total volume of the solution is 1 L.
3. For any volume other than 1 L we must adjust the amount
of solute needed by multiplying it by the fraction of a liter
of solution we need.
How many grams of CaCl2 would need to be dissolved in
1.0 L of water to make a 0.10 M solution of CaCl2?
Solution
 DILUTIONS
Dilutions are used to decrease the
concentration (or molarity) of a solution

M1V1=M2V2
Steps to Performing a Dilution
1.Calculate how many mL of the original (stock)
solution to start with
2.Measure out the volume of stock solution
(using a graduated cylinder or a pipet) and
place in appropriately sized volumetric flask
3.Add water to the mark on flask
DILUTIONS
What volume (in mL) of 2.00 M CaCl2 is needed to make
0.50 L of 0.300 M CaCl2 solution?
Solution
What volume of water would you add to 15.00 mL of
a 6.77 M solution of nitric acid (HNO3) in order to get
a 1.50 M solution?
Solution
 Properties of Acids
Physical Properties:
• Taste sour
Chemical Properties:
• React with metals to produce H gas
2

• Neutralized when reacted with a base

Litmus Indicator:
• Turns blue litmus paper red
Ions in Solution:
• H ,H O
+
3
+
(hydronium ion)
 Properties of Bases

Physical Properties:
• Taste Bitter
• Slippery

Chemical Properties:
• Neutralized when reacted with an acid
• Do not react with metals
• Why are bases used as drain cleaners?

Litmus Indicator:
• Turns red litmus paper blue

Ions in Solution:
• OH-
 Arrhenius Acids & Bases

Acid and base definitions by Arrhenius in 1883 were

-An acid is a neutral substance that contains hydrogen and
dissociates or ionizes in water to yield hydrated protons or
hydronium ions.
HCl H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
- A base is a neutral substance that contains the hydroxyl
group and dissociates in water to yield hydrated hydroxide
ions OH-.
HCl + NaOH NaCl +H20
NB: These definitions are limited in that they do not give a
comprehensive idea of what acidity and basicity entails.
ACIDS: Acids contain the H+ ion
Ex.) HCl, HBr, HNO3

BASES: Bases contain the OH-1 ion

Ex.) NaOH, KOH,
Ca(OH)2
Bronsted-Lowry Acids & Bases (1923)

• Bronsted/Lowry acid (HA): An acid is a species

which donates a proton. i.e. a proton donor.

• Bronsted/Lowry base (B): A base is a species

which accepts a proton. i.e. a proton acceptor.
Bronsted-Lowry Model:
• For every acid, there must be a base
• Acid = proton donor
• Base = proton acceptor

HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq)  NH4+ (aq) + Cl-1 (aq)

 Conjugate Pairs

• Conjugate pair = two compounds differing only by

the gain or loss of one H+
• Ex.) NH3 / NH4+ is a conjugate pair

• Every acid has a conjugate base, formed when H+ is

removed from the acid.

• Every base has a conjugate acid, formed when H+ is

added to the base.
Identify the conjugate pair of each compound:
a) HCl in water

b) NaOH in water

c) NH 3 in water
 Types of Acids
• Monoprotic and Polyprotic Acids
• Acids can contain 1 or more hydrogens that are acidic
• **Not ALL hydrogens are acidic (Ex. Vinegar)

Identify the following as monoprotic or polyprotic:

HNO3, H2SO4, HClO, HClO4, H3PO4, HC2H3O2
 Strength of Acids/Bases--1

Strengths of Acids
• Strong Acid Give off LOTS of H+
• Ionize completely in aqueous solution (100% Dissociation)

• Strong Acids: HCl, HI, HBr, HNO3,

H2SO4, HClO4
• That’s it! Everything else is “weak”

• Weak Acid Give off smaller amounts of H+

• Equilibrium occurs (molecules break apart and recombine)
• Not all H+ ions separate (not 100% dissociation)
 Strength of Acids/Bases--2

Strengths of Bases
• Strong Base Give off LOTS of OH-1
• 100% Dissociation
• Generally, Group I, II Hydroxides (except H, Be, Mg)

•Ex.) Ca(OH)2, NaOH

• Everything else is “weak”

• Weak Base Give off smaller amounts of OH-1

• Equilibrium occurs (breaks apart and then recombines)
• Not 100% dissociation
 Strong or weak vs. concentrated
and dilute

• Strong/weak tells you how much the

acid or base dissociates (breaks up)

• Concentrated/dilute indicates the

concentration (amount of solute in the
solvent)
 pH Determination

• 1) pH paper consists of strips pf paper impregnated

with one or ore acid-base indicators.
• Indicators are intensely coloured organic molecules
whose colors dramatically change depending on the Ph
of the solution.
• Characteristics of indicators
• -Color is pH dependent
• It is used to determine the pH of a solution.
 The pH Scale

The pH of a solution is the negative

logarithm of the H+ ions.
PH and pOH
-pH describes us the acidity or basicity of a
solution in quantitative terms.
-Based on measuring the [H+] (aka
[H3O+]
pH and pH Scale
-Ranges from 0 to 14
-Acid is pH<7
-Neutral is pH=7
-Bases is pH>7
Procedure
Place a drop of
solution on a strip of
pH paper and compare
its color with
standards to get the
solutions approximate
pH.
The color change of the indicator bromthymol blue

pH 7.5

pH 6 basic

change occurs
acidic over ~2 pH units

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 pH Meter
A more accurate tool, uses a glass electrode
whose voltage depends on the H+ ion
concentration.
Procedure
• Electronic device with a probe that can be inserted
into a solution of an unknown pH
• Probe contains an acidic aqueous solution
enclosed by a special glass membrane that
permits migration of H+ ions
• Electric potential results if the unknown solution
has a different pH from the solution in the probe
A pH Meter
 Definition: Hydronium Ion

In aqueous solution, H+ does NOT exist!

Note: In problems, [H+] = [H3O+]

H+ + H2O  H3O+
(hydronium ion)
pH Equations

• pH = - log [H O ] 3
+
pOH = - log [OH-]

• Make sure you have the negative sign!

• Find the “log” function on your calculator!

• pH + pOH = 14
• [H ][OH ] = 1.0 x 10-14
+ -
 Class examples

• Calculate pH and pOH for each of

the following solutions at 25°C
a. 1.0×10 M OH
–3 –

b.1.0 M OH –
 Solution (a)

14
K 1.0  10
 H +   w
 3
 1.0  10 11
M
OH  1.0  10


pH =  log  H +  =  log 1.0  10 11   11.00

pOH =  log OH   =  log 1.0  10 3   3.00

 Solution (b)

14
K 1.0  10
OH    w   1.0  1014 M
 H  1.0

pH =  log  H +  =  log 1.0   0.00

pOH =  log OH   =  log 1.0  10 14   14.00

 pH and pOH
• Consider the log of the expression Kw = [H+][OH–]
log Kw = log[H+] + log[OH–]
or
– log Kw = –log[H+] – log[OH–]
pKw = pH + pOH
Since Kw = 1.0×10–14, pKw = –log (1.0×10–14) =
14.00

• Thus, for any solution at 25°C, pH + pOH = 14.00

37
What is the pH and pOH for a solution with an H +
concentration, [H+], of 3.0 x 10-6 M H+?
Solution
What is the H+ and OH- concentration of blood with a pH of
7.40?
 Neutralization Reactions

Neutralization reaction:
Reaction in which acid and base react to
neutralize one another

Acid + Base  Water + Salt

***Salt = Any ionic compound formed as a

by-product of an acid-base reaction
 Neutralisation- Is the reaction of an H+ (H3O+) ion from the acid

and the OH- ion from the base to form water, H2O.

Titrations- Performed with acids and bases to determine their concentrations. At

the equivalence point, the number of moles of the acid will equal the number of

moles of the base. This indicates that the reaction has been neutralized.

Neutralization: moles of acid=moles of base

(Molarity of acid)(Volume of acid)=(Molarity of base)(Volume of base)

Acid-base Titration:
• Definition:
• Lab technique which allows you to get moles of acid and base
EXACTLY equal to another
• Complete neutralization
• Allows you to calculate the concentration of an unknown acid or base
 Procedure:

• Add known volume of acid or base

to Erlenmeyer flask
• Add a known concentration of the
other to a buret
• Add an indicator to the flask
• Slowly dispense titrant (what you’re
adding with a buret) into the flask
• Stop when 1 drop of titrant causes
the indicator to switch from one
color to another
 Definitions

The titrant is the substance of known concentration used to

determine the unknown concentration of the other
substance.

An indicator- substance that changes color at a certain pH—

is added to tell us when the neutralization is complete.

Example: Phenolphthalein undergoes a color change

between pH 8 and 10
clear in acid
Light pink in neutral
Dark pink in base
• Equivalence point: pH at which amount of acid =
amount of base
• Indicator: Compound that changes color due to a
change in pH
• Common Indicators and pH Range
• Litmus: 5.5 to 8.0 (red= acid, blue = base)
• Phenolphthalein: 8.2 to 10.6 (colorless to magenta)

• End point: Point at which the volume of titrant

added makes the amount of acid and base are
equal and the indicator changes color
 Buffers
• A buffer is a solution that can resist pH changes upon
addition of an acid or basic component.

• If the dissociation constant of the acid (pKa) and of the

base (pKb) is known, a buffer solution can be prepared
by controlling the salt-acid or salt-base ratio.

• Uses of buffer solutions

- Buffers are used to maintain an optimum pH for enzyme
activity in many organisms.
 Types of Buffers
• Acidic buffers
- Used to maintain acidic environments
- Has acidic pH
- Prepared by mixing a weak acid and its salt with a
strong base
• Basic buffers
- Used to maintain basic conditions.
- Has basic pH
- Prepared by mixing a weak base and its salt with a
strong acid.
 Preparation of Buffers

• A buffer solution is prepared by combining weak acids

and their salts or of weak bases and their salts.
• Methods include:
1. Dropping an acid (or base) into an aqueous solution
of a salt while measuring the pH with a pH meter.

2. Making an aqueous solution of acid with the same

concentration as the salt and mixing while measuring
the pH with a pH meter.
The effect of addition of acid or base to …

acid added base added

an unbuffered solution.

acid added base added

a buffered solution.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Handerson-Hasselbalch Equation
• Preparation of Basic buffer
Consider an base buffer solution containing a weak base
(B) and its salt (BA) with a strong acid (KOH). Weak base
B ionizes and the equilibrium can be written as
BA+H20 OH-+B-

Acid dissociation constant, KB=[OH-]+ [B-]/ [BA]

Taking negatve log on both RHS AND LHS sides,
-log [OH]=-logKa - log [B-]/ [BA]
**Since -log [OH-]=pOH and –logKb=pKb
pOH=pKb + log [B-]/[BA]
pH of a basic buffer=pKa-log [B-]/[HA]
Significance of the Handerson-Hasselbalch Equation

• Handerson-Hasselbalch equation can be used to

• 1. calculate the pH of the buffer prepared from a
mixture of salt and weak acid/base.
• Calculate the pKa value
• Prepare buffer solution of needed pH.

Limitation of the Handerson-Hasselbalch Equation

*The HH equation can not be used for strong acids

and strong bases.
 Buffering capacity

• It is defined as the number of millimoles of acid or

base to be added to a liter of buffer solution to
change the pH by one unit. Buffering capacity is
denoted B and calculated as
B
 Sickle shape of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia

Single-site mutations
in the hemoglobin
molecule can change the
net charge on the
protein, which causes
protein aggregation
and a consequent
change in cell
morphology
 Example

• Q1. What is the ratio of a base to acid when pH=pKa in

buffer solution? How about when pH=pKa+1?
Solution
- When pH=pKa, the ratio of base to acid is 1. This is
because log1=0
- When log(base/acid)=1, then the ratio of base to acid
is 10:1
 OUTLINE

• PU2: Energy Effects in Chemical Reactions

 Energy and Chemical Bonds
- Energy-Is defined as the capacity to do work.
There are different forms of energy namely: kinetic, thermal,
chemical and potential energy (Assignment: Read on this).
• There are two fundamental kinds of energy.
• Potential energy is stored energy. The water in a
reservoir behind a dam, an automobile poised to coast
downhill, and a coiled spring have potential energy waiting
to be released.
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. When the water
falls over the dam and turns a turbine, when the car rolls
downhill, or when the spring uncoils and makes the hands
on a clock move, the potential energy in each is converted56
to kinetic energy.
 Definitions
• All chemical reactions exhibit two fundamental laws:
- law of conservation of mass and the law of
conservation of energy.
Law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one
form to another.
Work-Is the direct energy resulting from a process.
- Most of the chemical reactions absorb or release
energy in the form of heat.
- Heat-Is the transfer of thermal energy between two
bodies that are at different temperatures.
- Thermochemistry-The study of heat change in the
chemical reactions.
- System-specific part of the universe of interest.
(closed, open or isolated system)
* Opened system-can exchange mass and energy
*Closed system-allows transfer of energy (heat) but no
mass.
*Isolated system-Does not allow the transfer of either
mass or energy.
- Surrounding-The rest of the universe outside the
system.
- Bond energy (bond dissociation energy)-Is the energy
needed to break a bond and are measured in units of
KJ/mol.
 Heat Changes During Chemical
Reactions

• Bond dissociation energy: The amount of energy that

must be supplied to break a bond and separate the atoms
in an isolated gaseous molecule.
• The triple bond in N2 has a bond dissociation energy 226
kcal/mole, while the single bond in Cl2 has a bond
dissociation energy 58 kcal/mole.

59
• Enthalpy-Is a measure of the heat content of a
chemical or physical system. The change in enthalpy of
a chemical reaction is symbolized as
Enthalpy, also known as Heat of reaction-It is defined as
the difference in energy between the reactants and the
product. It has symbol

* In an endothermic reaction, is a positive number (>0)

• In an exothermic reaction, will be negative (<0)
• -Chemical reactions often involve changes in energy due to the breaking
or formation of bonds.
• Exothermic-Reactions in which energy is released ex. Combustion
reactions such as burning of fuel.
• Endothermic-Reactions in which energy is absorbed from the
surrounding. Ex. Photosynthesis
• Assignment: Read on different types of energy change in
Chemical reactions giving examples of both exothermic and
endothermic reactions.

• Measuring heat changes in the laboratory

- Heat changes in physical and chemical processes are determined by using
a Calorimeter.
(Read on the principle of a calorimeter and how to use it)
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

When the total strength of the bonds formed in the

products is greater than the total strength of the
bonds broken in the reactants, energy is released and
a reaction is exothermic.

62
When the total energy of the bonds formed in the
products is less than the total energy of the bonds
broken in the reactants, energy is absorbed and the
reaction is endothermic.

63
 Why Do Chemical Reactions Occur? Free
Energy

• Spontaneous process: A process that, once started,

proceeds without any external influence.
• Entropy: The symbol S is used for entropy and it has the
unit of cal/mole·K. The physical state of a substance and
the number of particles have a large impact on the value
of S.

64
• Free energy change (DG): Free energy change is used
to describe spontaneity of a process. It takes both DH
and DS into account.
• Exergonic: A spontaneous reaction or process that
releases free energy and has a negative G.
• Endergonic: A nonspontaneous reaction or process that
absorbs free energy and has a positive G.

65
 How Do Chemical Reactions Occur?
Reaction Rates

• The value of DG indicates whether a reaction will occur

but it does not say anything about how fast the
reaction will occur or about the details of the molecular
changes that takes place.
• For a chemical reaction to occur, reactant particles must
collide, some chemical bonds have to break, and new
bonds have to form. Not all collisions lead to products,
however.

66
Another requirement for a reaction to occur is that the
collision must take place with enough energy to break the
appropriate bonds in the reactant. If the reactant particles
are moving slowly the particles will simply bounce apart.

67
• The Heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of the
substance by one degree Celsius. Its S.I. unit is J/ ºc.

• The Specific heat (S) of a substance is the amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of one gram of the substance
by one degree Celsius. S.I. unit is J/g.ºC.
• The relationship between the heat capacity and specific heat
capacity of a substance is
Where m=mass of the substance in grams
• Activation energy Activation energy (E ): -Is thea
minimum amount of energy that is needed to start a chemical
reaction. The amount of energy the colliding particles must have
for productive collisions to occur. The size of the activation
energy determines the reaction rate, or how fast the reaction
occurs.

• Activated complex (transition state)-Is the complex that exists

as the bonds in the reactants are breaking and the bonds in the
products are forming.

• The lower the activation energy, the greater the

number of productive collisions in a given amount of
time, and faster the reaction.
• The higher the activation energy, the lower the
number of productive collisions, and slower the
reaction.
 * If we know the specific heat and the amount of a substance, then
the change in the sample’s temperature ( will tell us the amount of
heat (q) that has been absorbed or released in a particular process.

• The equations for calculating the heat change are

given by

Where
 OUTLINE

• PU3: Rates of Chemical Reactions

Rate of chemical reaction (Chemical kinetics)

• A chemical reaction occurs when collisions between

molecules have sufficient energy to break the bonds in the
reactants; molecules collide with proper collision of reactants.
• The reaction rate is the speed at which reactant is used up
and product forms.
• The rate of reaction increases when temperature rises and by
increasing the concentration of reactants (WHY?)
• A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction by lowering the
energy of activation and is generally not used up during the
reaction.
• At equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to
the rate of the reverse reaction.
• Le Chatelier’s principle states that any change in
equilibrium conditions upsets the equilibrium of the system.
At equilibrium:
• Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction.
• Mount of products and reactants don’t change.
Factors affecting the rate of reaction
• 1. Temperature

• 2. Concentration of reactants

• 3. Catalyst

Factors affecting the equilibrium position

• 1. Temperature

• 2. Adding excess of the reactant

• 3. Removing one of the products

• 4. For reactions involving a volume change, pressure

Effects of Temperature, Concentration, and
Catalysts on Reaction Rates

Reaction rates increase with temperature. With more energy

the reactants move faster. The frequency of collisions and
the force with which collisions occur both increase. As a rule
of thumb, a 10°C rise in temperature causes a reaction rate
to double.

74
• A second way to speed up a reaction is to increase the
concentrations of the reactants.
• With reactants crowded together, collisions become more
frequent and reactions more likely. Flammable materials
burn more rapidly in pure oxygen than in air because the
concentration of molecules is higher (air is approximately
21% oxygen).
• Hospitals must therefore take extraordinary precautions
to ensure that no flames are used near patients receiving
oxygen.

75
• A third way to speed up a reaction is to add a catalyst
—a substance that accelerates a chemical reaction but
is itself unchanged in the process.
• A catalyzed reaction has a lower activation energy.

Chapter Seven 76
 Rate laws and Rate constants
• The rate of reaction is often found to be proportional to the molar
concentration of the reactants raised to a simple power.
q *k=the rate constant
A rate law is an equation that expresses the rate of reaction in terms of
the molar concentration of that species in the overall reaction.
The units of k are always such as to convert the product of
concentrations into a rate expressed as a change of concentration divided
by time.
L/mol.s x mol/L x mol/L = mol/L.s
k Rate

Importance or Rate laws

1. Rate laws can be used to predict the concentrations of the reactants
and the products at any time after the start of the reaction.
2. It is also used as an important guide to the reaction mechanism
 OUTLINE

• PU4: Chemical Equilibrium-reversible reactions

 Definitions

• Reversible reactions are chemical reactions that

can go in both directions.
• If a reaction is exothermic in one direction it is
endothermic in the other direction.
• In closed systems (where nothing can get in or
out) an equilibrium is reached where the rate
of reaction is the same in both directions.

At equilibrium:
• Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction.
• Mount of products and reactants don’t change.
Reversible Reactions and Chemical
Equilibrium

Imagine the situation if you mix acetic acid and ethyl

alcohol. The two begin to form ethyl acetate and water.
But as soon as ethyl acetate and water form, they begin
to go back to acetic acid and ethyl alcohol. Such a
reaction, which easily goes in either direction, is said to
be reversible and is indicated by a double arrow in
equations.

80
Both reactions occur until the concentrations of
reactants and products reach constant values. The
reaction vessel contains both reactants and products
and is said to be in a state of chemical equilibrium.
A state in which the rates of forward and reverse
reactions are the same.

81
 Equilibrium Equations and
Equilibrium Constants

• Consider the following general equilibrium reaction:

aA + bB + …  mM + nN + …

• Where A, B, … are the reactants; M, N, …. Are the

products; a, b, ….m, n, …. are coefficients in the
balanced equation. At equilibrium, the composition of
the reaction mixture obeys an equilibrium equation.

82
• The equilibrium constant K is the number obtained by
multiplying the equilibrium concentrations of the
products and dividing by the equilibrium concentrations
of the reactants, with the concentration each substance
raised to a power equal to its coefficient in the
balanced equation.
• The value of K varies with temperature.

83
 Classification of Reactions

• Reactions are classified according to their

kinetics(rate laws). The classification is based
on their order-Is the power to which the
concentrations of species is raised in the rate
law.
• Rate
• -second order in A
• The overall order-Is the sum of the orders
of all the components (2 for both reactions
above).
 Le Châtelier's Principle: The Effect
of Changing Conditions on Equilibria

• Le Châtelier's Principle: When a stress is applied to a

system at equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to relieve the
stress.
• The stress can be any change in concentration, pressure,
volume, or temperature that disturbs original equilibrium.

85
 Le Chatelier’s principle explains that “if a
system is at equilibrium and a change is made to
any of the conditions, then the system responds
to counteract that change.”

The Effect of changing conditions on

equilibrium
-The relative amounts of reactants and
products at equilibrium depend on the
conditions of the reaction.
Changing Concentration of reactants or
products

• If the concentration of a reactant is increased, the

system is no longer at equilibrium. According to Le
Chatelier’s principle, the system will respond by
reducing the concentration of reactants again.

• If the concentration of the product is decreased, the

system is no longer in equilibrium. According to the
Le Chatelier’s principle, the system will respond by
increasing the amount of product; more reactants
will react until equilibrium is reached again.
• What happens if the concentration of CO is increased?
• To relieve the “stress” of added CO, according to Le
Châtelier’s principle, the extra CO must be used up. In
other words, the rate of the forward reaction must
increase to consume CO.
• Think of the CO added on the left as “pushing” the
equilibrium to the right:

88
• The forward and reverse reaction rates adjust until they
are again equal and equilibrium is reestablished.
• At this new equilibrium state, the value of [H2] will be
lower, because more has reacted with the added CO, and
the value of [CH3OH] will be higher.
• The changes offset each other, however, so the value of
the equilibrium constant K remains constant.

89
 • Changing Temperature
• if the forward reaction is exothermic…
•…an increase in temperature decreases the
amount of products formed.
•…a decrease in temperature increases the
amount of products formed.
• Le Châtelier’s principle predicts that an increase in
temperature will cause an equilibrium to shift in favor of
the endothermic reaction so the additional heat is
absorbed.
• You can think of heat as a reactant or product whose
increase or decrease stresses an equilibrium just as a
change in reactant or product concentration does.

91
 • Changing Pressure

• if the forward reaction produces more molecules of gas…..

•If the forward reaction produces fewer molecules of gas…..
•…an increase in pressure decreases the amount of product
formed.
•…an increase in pressure increases the amount of product
formed.
•…a decrease in pressure increases the amount of product
formed.
•…a decrease in pressure decreases the amount of product
formed.
• Pressure influences an equilibrium only if one or more
of the substances involved is a gas. As predicted by Le
Châtelier’s principle, increasing the pressure shifts the
equilibrium in the direction that decreases the number
of molecules in the gas phase and thus decreases the
pressure.
• For the ammonia synthesis, increasing the pressure
favors the forward reaction because 4 moles of gas is
converted to 2 moles of gas.

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