Darcy’s law

Groundwater Hydraulics

Daene C. McKinney

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 Outline
• Darcy’s Law
• Hydraulic Conductivity
• Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
• Refraction of Streamlines
• Generalized Darcy’s Law

2
 Darcy

http://biosystems.okstate.edu/Darcy/English/index.htm 3
 Darcy’s Experiments
• Discharge is
hL
Proportional to P 1/g

– Area
L
– Head difference
P 2/g
Inversely proportional to v
h1 Q
– Length h2

A
• Coefficient of

,
Sand

ea
z1

Ar
column
proportionality is Datum z2
K = hydraulic conductivity plane
Q

h1  h2 h2 - h1 Dh
QA Q =- KA Q =- KA
L L L
4
 Darcy’s Data
35
Set 1, Series 1
30 Set 1, Series 2

25 Set 1, Series 3
Flow, Q (l/min)

Set 1, Series 4
20
Set 2
15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Gradient (m/m)

5
 Hydraulic Conductivity
• Has dimensions of velocity [L/T]
• A combined property of the medium and the fluid
• Ease with which fluid moves through the medium

k = cd2 intrinsic permeability Porous medium property

ρ = density
µ = dynamic viscosity
Fluid properties
g = specific weight

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Hydraulic Conductivity

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 Groundwater Velocity
• q - Specific discharge
Discharge from a unit cross-
section area of aquifer
formation normal to the
direction of flow.
• v - Average velocity
Average velocity of fluid
flowing per unit cross-
sectional area where flow is Q q Q
q v 
ONLY in pores. A  A

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 Example
h1 = 12m h2 = 12m

K = 1x10-5 m/s
f = 0.3 /”

Find q, Q, and v 10m Porous medium

Flow

5m
L = 100m

dh = (h2 - h1) = (10 m – 12 m) = -2 m

J = dh/dx = (-2 m)/100 m = -0.02 m/m

q = -KJ = -(1x10-5 m/s) x (-0.02 m/m) = 2x10-7 m/s

Q = qA = (2x10-7 m/s) x 50 m2 = 1x10-5 m3/s

v = q/f = 2x10-7 m/s / 0.3 = 6.6x10-7 m/s

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 Hydraulic Gradient

Gradient vector points in the direction of greatest rate of increase of h

Specific discharge vector points in the opposite direction of h

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 Well Pumping in an Aquifer
Hydraulic gradient

y
Circular hydraulic
head contours
Dh

K, conductivity,
Is constant q Specific discharge

Well, Q x

h1
h2 h3

h1 < h2 < h3

Aquifer (plan view) 11

 Validity of Darcy’s Law
• We ignored kinetic energy (low velocity)
• We assumed laminar flow
• We can calculate a Reynolds Number for the flow
r qd10
NR =
m
q = Specific discharge
d10 = effective grain size diameter
 
• Darcy’s Law is valid for NR < 1 (maybe up to 10)

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Specific Discharge vs Head Gradient

Experiment
Re = 10 shows this

Re = 1 Darcy Law
predicts this

a
q
tan (a)= (1/K)
-1

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 Estimating Conductivity
Kozeny – Carman Equation
• Kozeny used bundle of capillary tubes model to derive an
expression for permeability in terms of a constant (c) and
the grain size (d)

2   3  2
k  cd   d Kozeny – Carman eq.
 180(1   ) 
2
 

• So how do we get the parameters we need for this

equation?

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 Measuring Conductivity
Permeameter Lab Measurements
• Darcy’s Law is useless unless we can measure the
parameters
• Set up a flow pattern such that
– We can derive a solution
– We can produce the flow pattern experimentally
• Hydraulic Conductivity is measured in the lab with a
permeameter
– Steady or unsteady 1-D flow
– Small cylindrical sample of medium

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 Measuring Conductivity
Constant Head Permeameter

• Flow is steady Continuous Flow

• Sample: Right circular cylinder

– Length, L
– Area, A head difference
Overflow

• Constant head difference (h) is

applied across the sample
producing a flow rate Q
• Darcy’s Law flow
A
Outflow
b Q
Q =KA
L
Sample
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 Measuring Conductivity
Falling Head Permeameter
• Flow rate in the tube must equal that in the column
2 dh
Qtube =p rtube
dt
Initial head
2 h
Qcolumn =p rcolumn K
L
  2 Final head
æ rtube ö æL ödh
ç ÷ ç ÷ =dt
èrcolumn ø èK ø h
 
flow

 
Outflow
Q

Sample
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 Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
• Homogeneous
– Properties same at every
point
• Heterogeneous
– Properties different at every
point
• Isotropic
– Properties same in every
direction
• Anisotropic
– Properties different in different
directions
• Often results from stratification
during sedimentation
K horizontal  K vertical
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www.usgs.gov
 Example
• a = ???, b = 4.673x10-10 m2/N, g = 9798 N/m3,
• S = 6.8x10-4, b = 50 m, f = 0.25,
• Saquifer = gabb = ???
• Swater = gbfb

• % storage attributable to water expansion

•
• %storage attributable to aquifer expansion
•

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 Layered Porous Media
(Flow Parallel to Layers)
Piezometric surface

Dh
h1
h2

datum
b1 K1 Q1

Q2 Q
 3 b b2 K2
∑ 𝑏 𝑖 𝐾 𝑖=𝑏 𝐾´
𝑖=1
b3 K3 Q3

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 Layered Porous Media
(Flow Perpendicular to Layers)
Piezometric surface
Dh1
Dh2 Dh
Dh3

K1 K2 K3

Q
b
Q

 3 𝐿𝑖 𝐿
∑ 𝐾 = 𝐾´
𝑖=1 𝑖

L1 L2 L3
L 21
 Example

Flow Q

• Find average K

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 Flow Q Example

• Find average K

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 Anisotrpoic Porous Media
• General relationship between specific
discharge and hydraulic gradient

K is symmetric, i.e., Kij = Kji.

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 Principal Directions
é¶hù
• Often we can align the éq x ù éK xx 0
ê ú
0 ùê¶x ú
coordinate axes in the ê ú ê ú ¶h
êqy ú=- ê 0 K yy 0 úê ú
ê¶y ú
principal directions of ê
ëqz úû êë 0 0 K zz ú
ûê¶hú
layering ê
ë¶z ú
û
• Horizontal conductivity ¶h
often order of qx =- K xx
  ¶x
magnitude larger than qy =- K yy
¶h
vertical conductivity ¶y
¶h
qz =- K zz
K xx =K yy =K Horiz >> K zz =KVert ¶z

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 Flow between 2 adjacent flow lines
  𝑑h
𝑞=𝐾 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑠

For the squares of the flow net

𝑑𝑠=𝑑𝑚
 
so
𝑞=𝐾𝑑h
 

For entire flow net, total head

loss h is divided into n squares

  h
𝑑h=
𝑛

If flow is divided into m channels

by flow lines
  𝑚𝑞=𝐾 𝑚h
𝑄=
𝑛

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 Flow lines are
perpendicular
KU/KL = 1/50 to water table
contours

Flow lines are

parallel to
impermeable
boundaries

KU/KL = 50

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 Contour Map of Groundwater Levels
• Contours of
groundwater level
(equipotential lines)
and Flowlines
(perpendicular to
equipotiential lines)
indicate areas of
recharge and discharge

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 Groundwater Flow Direction
• Water level
measurements from
three wells can be used
Groundwater
to determine Contours
groundwater flow hi > hj > hk
direction Head Gradient, J hi hj
hk
h1(x1,y1)
h3(x3,y3)

z
y Groundwater
Flow, Q

h2(x2,y2)

x
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 Groundwater Flow Direction
Head gradient =

Magnitude of head gradient =

Angle of head gradient =

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 Groundwater Flow Direction
Head Gradient, J

h1(x1,y1)
h3(x3,y3)

z
Equation of a plane in 2D
y Groundwater
Flow, Q
3 points can be used to
define a plane h2(x2,y2)

Set of linear equations can be solved for a,

b and c given (xi, hi, i=1, 2, 3)

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Groundwater Flow Direction
Negative of head gradient in x direction

Negative of head gradient in y direction

Magnitude of head gradient

Direction of flow

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Example
Find:
y
Well 2
(200 m, 340 m) Magnitude of head gradient
55.11 m
Direction of flow

Well 1
(0 m,0 m)
57.79 m
x

Well 3
(190 m, -150 m)
52.80 m 33
 Example
Well 2
(200, 340)
55.11 m

Well 1 x
(0,0) q = -5.3 deg
57.79 m

Well 3
(190, -150)
52.80 m 34
 Refraction of Streamlines
y
• Vertical component of
velocity must be the same q1 Upper Formation
on both sides of interface K1 1
q y1 =q y2
q1 cos q1 =q2 sin q2
K2 2 x
• Head continuity along K 2  K1 q2
interface Lower Formation
 
h1 =h2 @ y =0
• So
K1 tan q1
=
  K 2 tan q2

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Consider a leaky confined aquifer
with 4.5 m/d horizontal hydraulic
conductivity is overlain by an
aquitard with 0.052 m/d vertical
hydraulic conductivity. If the flow in
the aquitard is in the downward
direction and makes an angle of 5o
with the vertical, determine q2.

𝐾
  1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃1
𝐾 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃2

𝑜
 0.052 𝑚 / 𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 5 )
4 .5𝑚 / 𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 2

𝑜
𝜃
  2= 82.5

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 Summary
• Properties – Aquifer Storage
• Darcy’s Law
– Darcy’s Experiment
– Specific Discharge
– Average Velocity
– Validity of Darcy’s Law
• Hydraulic Conductivity
– Permeability
– Kozeny-Carman Equation
– Constant Head Permeameter
– Falling Head Permeameter
• Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
– Layered Porous Media
• Refraction of Streamlines
• Generalized Darcy’s Law

37
 Example

Flow Q

K1z1 + K 2 z2 (2.3 m / d)(15 m) +(12.8 m / d)(15 m)

K h,A = = =7.55 m / d
z1 + z2 (15 m) + (15 m)

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 Flow Q Example

z1 + z2 (15 m) + (15 m)
K v,A = = =3.90 m / d
z1 z2 15 m 15 m
+ +
K1 K 2 2.3 m / d 12.8 m / d

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